Potentiation of BKCa channels by cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) correctors VX-445 and VX-121.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) results from mutations in the CFTR anion channel, ultimately leading to diminished transepithelial anion secretion and mucociliary clearance. CFTR correctors are therapeutics that restore the folding/trafficking of mutated CFTR to the plasma membrane. The BKCa potassium channel is also critical for maintaining lung ASL volume. Here, we show the CFTR corrector, VX-445 (Elexacaftor), a component of Trikafta, induces K+ secretion across WT and F508del CFTR primary human bronchial epithelial cells (HBEs), which was entirely inhibited by the BKCa antagonist paxilline. Similar results were observed with VX-121 - a corrector under clinical evaluation. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings confirmed potentiated channel activity from CFTR correctors on the BKCa α-subunit, and excised patch-clamp recordings demonstrated a significant increase in open probability. In mesenteric artery, VX-445 induced a paxilline-sensitive vasorelaxation of preconstricted arteries. VX-445 also reduced action potential firing frequency in primary hippocampal and cortical neurons. VX-445 effects were observed at low micomolar concentrations (1-10 µM) - within the range reported in plasma and tissues from CF patients. We raise the possibilities that CFTR correctors gain additional clinical benefit by activation of BKCa in the lung, yet may lead to adverse events through BKCa activation, elsewhere.

MicroRNA-19 is regulated by aldosterone in a sex-specific manner to alter kidney sodium transport.

A key regulator of blood pressure homeostasis is the steroid hormone aldosterone, which is released as the final signaling hormone of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-signaling (RAAS) system. Aldosterone increases sodium (Na+) reabsorption in the kidney distal nephron to regulate blood volume. Unregulated RAAS signaling can lead to hypertension and cardiovascular disease. The serum and glucocorticoid kinase (SGK1) coordinates much of the Na+ reabsorption in the cortical collecting duct (CCD) tubular epithelial cells. We previously demonstrated that aldosterone alters the expression of microRNAs (miRs) in CCD principal cells. The aldosterone-regulated miRs can modulate Na+ transport and the cellular response to aldosterone signaling. However, the sex-specific regulation of miRs by aldosterone in the kidney distal nephron has not been explored. In this study, we report that miR-19, part of the miR-17-92 cluster, is upregulated in female mouse CCD cells in response to aldosterone activation. Mir-19 binding to the 3'-untranslated region of SGK1 was confirmed using a dual-luciferase reporter assay. Increasing miR-19 expression in CCD cells decreased SGK1 message and protein expression. Removal of this cluster using a nephron-specific, inducible knockout mouse model increased SGK1 expression in female mouse CCD cells. The miR-19-induced decrease in SGK1 protein expression reduced the response to aldosterone stimulation and may account for sex-specific differences in aldosterone signaling. By examining evolution of the miR-17-92 cluster, phylogenetic sequence analysis indicated that this cluster arose at the same time that other Na+-sparing and salt regulatory proteins, specifically SGK1, first emerged, indicating a conserved role for these miRs in kidney function of salt and water homeostasis.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Expression of the microRNA-17-92 cluster is upregulated by aldosterone in mouse cortical collecting duct principal cells, exclusively in female mice. MiR-19 in this cluster targets the serum and glucocorticoid kinase (SGK1) to downregulate both mRNA and protein expression, resulting in a decrease in sodium transport across epithelial cells of the collecting duct. The miR-17-92 cluster is evolutionarily conserved and may act as a novel feedback regulator for aldosterone signaling in females.

Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) increase expression of KCa2.3 (SK3) in primary microvascular endothelial cells.

The small conductance calcium-activated potassium channel (KCa2.3) has long been recognized for its role in mediating vasorelaxation through the endothelium-derived hyperpolarization (EDH) response. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) have been implicated as potential modulators of blood pressure and histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) are being explored as therapeutics for hypertension. Herein, we show that HDACi increase KCa2.3 expression when heterologously expressed in HEK cells and endogenously expressed in primary cultures of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and human intestinal microvascular endothelial cells (HIMECs). When primary endothelial cells were exposed to HDACi, KCa2.3 transcripts, subunits, and functional current are increased. Quantitative RT-PCR (qPCR) demonstrated increased KCa2.3 mRNA following HDACi, confirming transcriptional regulation of KCa2.3 by HDACs. By using pharmacological agents selective for different classes of HDACs, we discriminated between cytoplasmic and epigenetic modulation of KCa2.3. Biochemical analysis revealed an association between the cytoplasmic HDAC6 and KCa2.3 in immunoprecipitation studies. Specifically inhibiting HDAC6 increases expression of KCa2.3. In addition to increasing the expression of KCa2.3, we show that nonspecific inhibition of HDACs causes an increase in the expression of the molecular chaperone Hsp70 in endothelial cells. When Hsp70 is inhibited in the presence of HDACi, the magnitude of the increase in KCa2.3 expression is diminished. Finally, we show a slower rate of endocytosis of KCa2.3 as a result of exposure of primary endothelial cells to HDACi. These data provide the first demonstrated approach to increase KCa2.3 channel number in endothelial cells and may partially account for the mechanism by which HDACi induce vasorelaxation.

Non-coding RNAs and the mineralocorticoid receptor in the kidney.

The final steps in the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone signaling System (RAAS) involve binding of the corticosteroid hormone, aldosterone to its mineralocorticoid receptor (MR). The bound MR interacts with response elements to induce or repress the transcription of aldosterone-regulated genes. Along with the classic genomic targets of aldosterone that alter mRNA and protein expression, aldosterone also regulates the expression of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Short ncRNAs termed microRNAs (miRs) have been shown to play a role in transducing aldosterone's actions via MR signaling. The role of miRs in homeostatic regulation of aldosterone signaling, and the potential for aldosterone-regulated miRs to act as feedback regulators of MR have been recently reported. In this review, the role of miRs in RAAS signaling and feedback regulation of MR in kidney epithelial cells will be discussed.

Loss of miR-17~92 results in dysregulation of Cftr in nephron progenitors.

We have previously demonstrated that loss of miR-17~92 in nephron progenitors in a mouse model results in renal hypodysplasia and chronic kidney disease. Clinically, decreased congenital nephron endowment because of renal hypodysplasia is associated with an increased risk of hypertension and chronic kidney disease, and this is at least partly dependent on the self-renewal of nephron progenitors. Here, we present evidence for a novel molecular mechanism regulating the self-renewal of nephron progenitors and congenital nephron endowment by the highly conserved miR-17~92 cluster. Whole transcriptome sequencing revealed that nephron progenitors lacking this cluster demonstrated increased Cftr expression. We showed that one member of the cluster, miR-19b, is sufficient to repress Cftr expression in vitro and that perturbation of Cftr activity in nephron progenitors results in impaired proliferation. Together, these data suggest that miR-19b regulates Cftr expression in nephron progenitors, with this interaction playing a role in appropriate nephron progenitor self-renewal during kidney development to generate normal nephron endowment.

Regulation of Aldosterone Signaling by MicroRNAs.

The mineralocorticoid hormone aldosterone is released by the adrenal glands in a homeostatic mechanism to regulate blood volume. Several cues elicit aldosterone release, and the long-term action of the hormone is to restore blood pressure and/or increase the retrieval of sodium from filtered plasma in the kidney. While the signaling cascade that results in aldosterone release is well studied, the impact of this hormone on tissues and cells in various organ systems is pleotropic. Emerging evidence indicates aldosterone may alter non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) to integrate the hormonal response, and these ncRNAs may contribute to the heterogeneity of signaling outcomes in aldosterone target tissues. The best studied of the ncRNAs in aldosterone action are the small ncRNAs, microRNAs. MicroRNA expression is regulated by aldosterone stimulation, and microRNAs are able to modulate protein expression at all steps in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-signaling system. The discovery and synthesis of microRNAs will be briefly covered followed by a discussion of the reciprocal role of aldosterone/microRNA regulation, including misregulation of microRNA signaling in aldosterone-linked disease states.

The Lhx1-Ldb1 complex interacts with Furry to regulate microRNA expression during pronephric kidney development.

The molecular events driving specification of the kidney have been well characterized. However, how the initial kidney field size is established, patterned, and proportioned is not well characterized. Lhx1 is a transcription factor expressed in pronephric progenitors and is required for specification of the kidney, but few Lhx1 interacting proteins or downstream targets have been identified. By tandem-affinity purification, we isolated FRY like transcriptional coactivator (Fryl), one of two paralogous genes, fryl and furry (fry), have been described in vertebrates. Both proteins were found to interact with the Ldb1-Lhx1 complex, but our studies focused on Lhx1/Fry functional roles, as they are expressed in overlapping domains. We found that Xenopus embryos depleted of fry exhibit loss of pronephric mesoderm, phenocopying the Lhx1-depleted animals. In addition, we demonstrated a synergism between Fry and Lhx1, identified candidate microRNAs regulated by the pair, and confirmed these microRNA clusters influence specification of the kidney. Therefore, our data shows that a constitutively-active Ldb1-Lhx1 complex interacts with a broadly expressed microRNA repressor, Fry, to establish the kidney field.

Role of microRNAs in aldosterone signaling.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The review describes studies investigating the role of microRNAs in the signaling pathway of the mineralocorticoid hormone, aldosterone. RECENT FINDINGS: Emerging evidence indicates that aldosterone alters the expression of microRNAs in target tissues thereby modulating the expression of key regulatory proteins. SUMMARY: The mineralocorticoid hormone aldosterone is released by the adrenal glands in a homeostatic mechanism to regulate blood volume. The long-term renal action of aldosterone is to increase the retrieval of sodium from filtered plasma to restore blood pressure. Emerging evidence indicates aldosterone may alter noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) to integrate this hormonal response in target tissue. Expression of the best characterized small ncRNAs, microRNAs, is regulated by aldosterone stimulation. MicroRNAs modulate protein expression at all steps in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-signaling (RAAS) system. In addition to acting as a rheostat to fine-tune protein levels in aldosterone-responsive cells, there is evidence that microRNAs down-regulate components of the signaling cascade as a feedback mechanism. The role of microRNAs is, therefore, as signal integrator, and damper in aldosterone signaling, which has implications in understating the RAAS system from both a physiological and pathophysiological perspective. Recent evidence for microRNA's role in RAAS signaling will be discussed.

Specific Palmitoyltransferases Associate with and Activate the Epithelial Sodium Channel.

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) has an important role in regulating extracellular fluid volume and blood pressure, as well as airway surface liquid volume and mucociliary clearance. ENaC is a trimer of three homologous subunits (α, ß, and γ). We previously reported that cytoplasmic residues on the ß (ßCys-43 and ßCys-557) and γ (γCys-33 and γCys-41) subunits are palmitoylated. Mutation of Cys that blocked ENaC palmitoylation also reduced channel open probability. Furthermore, γ subunit palmitoylation had a dominant role over ß subunit palmitoylation in regulating ENaC. To determine which palmitoyltransferases (termed DHHCs) regulate the channel, mouse ENaCs were co-expressed in Xenopus oocytes with each of the 23 mouse DHHCs. ENaC activity was significantly increased by DHHCs 1, 2, 3, 7, and 14. ENaC activation by DHHCs was lost when γ subunit palmitoylation sites were mutated, whereas DHHCs 1, 2, and 14 still activated ENaC lacking ß subunit palmitoylation sites. ß subunit palmitoylation was increased by ENaC co-expression with DHHC 7. Both wild type ENaC and channels lacking ß and γ palmitoylation sites co-immunoprecipitated with the five activating DHHCs, suggesting that ENaC forms a complex with multiple DHHCs. RT-PCR revealed that transcripts for the five activating DHHCs were present in cultured mCCDcl1 cells, and DHHC 3 was expressed in aquaporin 2-positive principal cells of mouse aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron where ENaC is localized. Treatment of polarized mCCDcl1 cells with a general inhibitor of palmitoylation reduced ENaC-mediated Na+ currents within minutes. Our results indicate that specific DHHCs have a role in regulating ENaC.

A MicroRNA Cluster miR-23-24-27 Is Upregulated by Aldosterone in the Distal Kidney Nephron Where it Alters Sodium Transport.

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) is expressed in the epithelial cells of the distal convoluted tubules, connecting tubules, and cortical collecting duct (CCD) in the kidney nephron. Under the regulation of the steroid hormone aldosterone, ENaC is a major determinant of sodium (Na+ ) and water balance. The ability of aldosterone to regulate microRNAs (miRs) in the kidney has recently been realized, but the role of miRs in Na+ regulation has not been well established. Here we demonstrate that expression of a miR cluster mmu-miR-23-24-27, is upregulated in the CCD by aldosterone stimulation both in vitro and in vivo. Increasing the expression of these miRs increased Na+ transport in the absence of aldosterone stimulation. Potential miR targets were evaluated and miR-27a/b was verified to bind to the 3'-untranslated region of intersectin-2, a multi-domain protein expressed in the distal kidney nephron and involved in the regulation of membrane trafficking. Expression of Itsn2 mRNA and protein was decreased after aldosterone stimulation. Depletion of Itsn2 expression, mimicking aldosterone regulation, increased ENaC-mediated Na+ transport, while Itsn2 overexpression reduced ENaC's function. These findings reinforce a role for miRs in aldosterone regulation of Na+ transport, and implicate miR-27 in aldosterone's action via a novel target. J. Cell. Physiol. 232: 1306-1317, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Ankyrin G Expression Regulates Apical Delivery of the Epithelial Sodium Channel (ENaC).

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) is the limiting entry point for Na+ reabsorption in the distal kidney nephron and is regulated by numerous hormones, including the mineralocorticoid hormone aldosterone. Previously we identified ankyrin G (AnkG), a cytoskeletal protein involved in vesicular transport, as a novel aldosterone-induced protein that can alter Na+ transport in mouse cortical collecting duct cells. However, the mechanisms underlying AnkG regulation of Na+ transport were unknown. Here we report that AnkG expression directly regulates Na+ transport by altering ENaC activity in the apical membrane. Increasing AnkG expression increased ENaC activity while depleting AnkG reduced ENaC-mediated Na+ transport. These changes were due to a change in ENaC directly rather than through alterations to the Na+ driving force created by Na+/K+-ATPase. Using a constitutively open mutant of ENaC, we demonstrate that the augmentation of Na+ transport is caused predominantly by increasing the number of ENaCs at the surface. To determine the mechanism of AnkG action on ENaC surface number, changes in rates of internalization, recycling, and membrane delivery were investigated. AnkG did not alter ENaC delivery to the membrane from biosynthetic pathways or removal by endocytosis. However, AnkG did alter ENaC insertion from constitutive recycling pathways. These findings provide a mechanism to account for the role of AnkG in the regulation of Na+ transport in the distal kidney nephron.

Expression of a Diverse Array of Ca2+-Activated K+ Channels (SK1/3, IK1, BK) that Functionally Couple to the Mechanosensitive TRPV4 Channel in the Collecting Duct System of Kidney.

The voltage- and Ca2+-activated, large conductance K+ channel (BK, maxi-K) is expressed in the collecting duct system of kidney where it underlies flow- and Ca2+-dependent K+ excretion. To determine if other Ca2+-activated K+ channels (KCa) may participate in this process, mouse kidney and the K+-secreting mouse cortical collecting duct (CCD) cell line, mCCDcl1, were assessed for TRPV4 and KCa channel expression and cross-talk. qPCR mRNA analysis and immunocytochemical staining demonstrated TRPV4 and KCa expression in mCCDcl1 cells and kidney connecting tubule (CNT) and CCD. Three subfamilies of KCa channels were revealed: the high Ca2+-binding affinity small-conductance SK channels, SK1and SK3, the intermediate conductance channel, IK1, and the low Ca2+-binding affinity, BK channel (BKα subunit). Apparent expression levels varied in CNT/CCD where analysis of CCD principal cells (PC) and intercalated cells (IC) demonstrated differential staining: SK1:PCIC, IK1:PC>IC, BKα:PC = IC, and TRPV4:PC>IC. Patch clamp analysis and fluorescence Ca2+ imaging of mCCDcl1 cells demonstrated potent TRPV4-mediated Ca2+ entry and strong functional cross-talk between TRPV4 and KCa channels. TRPV4-mediated Ca2+ influx activated each KCa channel, as evidenced by selective inhibition of KCa channels, with each active KCa channel enhancing Ca2+ entry (due to membrane hyperpolarization). Transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) analysis of confluent mCCDcl1 cells grown on permeable supports further demonstrated this cross-talk where TRPV4 activation induce a decrease in TEER which was partially restored upon selective inhibition of each KCa channel. It is concluded that SK1/SK3 and IK1 are highly expressed along with BKα in CNT and CCD and are closely coupled to TRPV4 activation as observed in mCCDcl1 cells. The data support a model in CNT/CCD segments where strong cross talk between TRPV4-mediated Ca2+ influx and each KCa channel leads to enhance Ca2+ entry which will support activation of the low Ca2+-binding affinity BK channel to promote BK-mediated K+ secretion.

Alternatively spliced proline-rich cassettes link WNK1 to aldosterone action.

The thiazide-sensitive NaCl cotransporter (NCC) is important for renal salt handling and blood-pressure homeostasis. The canonical NCC-activating pathway consists of With-No-Lysine (WNK) kinases and their downstream effector kinases SPAK and OSR1, which phosphorylate NCC directly. The upstream mechanisms that connect physiological stimuli to this system remain obscure. Here, we have shown that aldosterone activates SPAK/OSR1 via WNK1. We identified 2 alternatively spliced exons embedded within a proline-rich region of WNK1 that contain PY motifs, which bind the E3 ubiquitin ligase NEDD4-2. PY motif-containing WNK1 isoforms were expressed in human kidney, and these isoforms were efficiently degraded by the ubiquitin proteasome system, an effect reversed by the aldosterone-induced kinase SGK1. In gene-edited cells, WNK1 deficiency negated regulatory effects of NEDD4-2 and SGK1 on NCC, suggesting that WNK1 mediates aldosterone-dependent activity of the WNK/SPAK/OSR1 pathway. Aldosterone infusion increased proline-rich WNK1 isoform abundance in WT mice but did not alter WNK1 abundance in hypertensive Nedd4-2 KO mice, which exhibit high baseline WNK1 and SPAK/OSR1 activity toward NCC. Conversely, hypotensive Sgk1 KO mice exhibited low WNK1 expression and activity. Together, our findings indicate that the proline-rich exons are modular cassettes that convert WNK1 into a NEDD4-2 substrate, thereby linking aldosterone and other NEDD4-2-suppressing antinatriuretic hormones to NCC phosphorylation status.

MicroRNAs and the regulation of aldosterone signaling in the kidney.

The role of small noncoding RNAs, termed microRNAs (miRs), in development and disease has been recognized for many years. The number of miRs and regulated targets that reinforce a role for miRs in human disease and disease progression is ever-increasing. However, less is known about the involvement of miRs in steady-state, nondisease homeostatic pathways. In the kidney, much of the regulated ion transport is under the control of hormonal signaling. Evidence is emerging that miRs are involved in the hormonal regulation of kidney function and, particularly, in ion transport. In this short review, the production and intra- and extracellular signaling of miRs and the involvement of miRs in kidney disease are discussed. The discussion also focuses on the role of these small biological molecules in the homeostatic control of ion transport in the kidney. MiR regulation of and by corticosteroid hormones, in particular the mineralocorticoid hormone aldosterone, is considered. While information about the role of aldosterone-regulated miRs in the kidney is limited, an increase in the research in this area will undoubtedly highlight the involvement of miRs as central mediators of hormonal signaling in normal physiology.

Modulation of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) by bacterial metalloproteases and protease inhibitors.

The serralysin family of metalloproteases is associated with the virulence of multiple gram-negative human pathogens, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Serratia marcescens. The serralysin proteases share highly conserved catalytic domains and show evolutionary similarity to the mammalian matrix metalloproteases. Our previous studies demonstrated that alkaline protease (AP) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa is capable of activating the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC), leading to an increase in sodium absorption in airway epithelia. The serralysin proteases are often co-expressed with endogenous, intracellular or periplasmic inhibitors, which putatively protect the bacterium from unwanted or unregulated protease activities. To evaluate the potential use of these small protein inhibitors in regulating the serralysin induced activation of ENaC, proteases from Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Serratia marcescens were purified for characterization along with a high affinity inhibitor from Pseudomonas. Both proteases showed activity against in vitro substrates and could be blocked by near stoichiometric concentrations of the inhibitor. In addition, both proteases were capable of activating ENaC when added to the apical surfaces of multiple epithelial cells with similar slow activation kinetics. The high-affinity periplasmic inhibitor from Pseudomonas effectively blocked this activation. These data suggest that multiple metalloproteases are capable of activating ENaC. Further, the endogenous, periplasmic bacterial inhibitors may be useful for modulating the downstream effects of the serralysin virulence factors under physiological conditions.

Aldosterone regulates microRNAs in the cortical collecting duct to alter sodium transport.

A role for microRNAs (miRs) in the physiologic regulation of sodium transport in the kidney has not been established. In this study, we investigated the potential of aldosterone to alter miR expression in mouse cortical collecting duct (mCCD) epithelial cells. Microarray studies demonstrated the regulation of miR expression by aldosterone in both cultured mCCD and isolated primary distal nephron principal cells. Aldosterone regulation of the most significantly downregulated miRs, mmu-miR-335-3p, mmu-miR-290-5p, and mmu-miR-1983 was confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR. Reducing the expression of these miRs separately or in combination increased epithelial sodium channel (ENaC)-mediated sodium transport in mCCD cells, without mineralocorticoid supplementation. Artificially increasing the expression of these miRs by transfection with plasmid precursors or miR mimic constructs blunted aldosterone stimulation of ENaC transport. Using a newly developed computational approach, termed ComiR, we predicted potential gene targets for the aldosterone-regulated miRs and confirmed ankyrin 3 (Ank3) as a novel aldosterone and miR-regulated protein. A dual-luciferase assay demonstrated direct binding of the miRs with the Ank3-3' untranslated region. Overexpression of Ank3 increased and depletion of Ank3 decreased ENaC-mediated sodium transport in mCCD cells. These findings implicate miRs as intermediaries in aldosterone signaling in principal cells of the distal kidney nephron.

Anterograde trafficking of KCa3.1 in polarized epithelia is Rab1- and Rab8-dependent and recycling endosome-independent.

The intermediate conductance, Ca2+-activated K+ channel (KCa3.1) targets to the basolateral (BL) membrane in polarized epithelia where it plays a key role in transepithelial ion transport. However, there are no studies defining the anterograde and retrograde trafficking of KCa3.1 in polarized epithelia. Herein, we utilize Biotin Ligase Acceptor Peptide (BLAP)-tagged KCa3.1 to address these trafficking steps in polarized epithelia, using MDCK, Caco-2 and FRT cells. We demonstrate that KCa3.1 is exclusively targeted to the BL membrane in these cells when grown on filter supports. Following endocytosis, KCa3.1 degradation is prevented by inhibition of lysosomal/proteosomal pathways. Further, the ubiquitylation of KCa3.1 is increased following endocytosis from the BL membrane and PR-619, a deubiquitylase inhibitor, prevents degradation, indicating KCa3.1 is targeted for degradation by ubiquitylation. We demonstrate that KCa3.1 is targeted to the BL membrane in polarized LLC-PK1 cells which lack the µ1B subunit of the AP-1 complex, indicating BL targeting of KCa3.1 is independent of µ1B. As Rabs 1, 2, 6 and 8 play roles in ER/Golgi exit and trafficking of proteins to the BL membrane, we evaluated the role of these Rabs in the trafficking of KCa3.1. In the presence of dominant negative Rab1 or Rab8, KCa3.1 cell surface expression was significantly reduced, whereas Rabs 2 and 6 had no effect. We also co-immunoprecipitated KCa3.1 with both Rab1 and Rab8. These results suggest these Rabs are necessary for the anterograde trafficking of KCa3.1. Finally, we determined whether KCa3.1 traffics directly to the BL membrane or through recycling endosomes in MDCK cells. For these studies, we used either recycling endosome ablation or dominant negative RME-1 constructs and determined that KCa3.1 is trafficked directly to the BL membrane rather than via recycling endosomes. These results are the first to describe the anterograde and retrograde trafficking of KCa3.1 in polarized epithelia cells.

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) establishes a trafficking vesicle pool responsible for its regulation.

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) is the rate-limiting step for sodium reabsorption across tight epithelia. Cyclic-AMP (cAMP) stimulation promotes ENaC trafficking to the apical surface to increase channel number and transcellular Na(+) transport. Removal of corticosteroid supplementation in a cultured cortical collecting duct cell line reduced ENaC expression. Concurrently, the number of vesicles trafficked in response to cAMP stimulation, as measured by a change in membrane capacitance, also decreased. Stimulation with aldosterone restored both the basal and cAMP-stimulated ENaC activity and increased the number of exocytosed vesicles. Knocking down ENaC directly decreased both the cAMP-stimulated short-circuit current and capacitance response in the presence of aldosterone. However, constitutive apical recycling of the Immunoglobulin A receptor was unaffected by alterations in ENaC expression or trafficking. Fischer Rat Thyroid cells, transfected with α,ß,γ-mENaC had a significantly greater membrane capacitance response to cAMP stimulation compared to non-ENaC controls. Finally, immunofluorescent labeling and quantitation revealed a smaller number of vesicles in cells where ENaC expression was reduced. These findings indicate that ENaC is not a passive passenger in regulated epithelial vesicle trafficking, but plays a role in establishing and maintaining the pool of vesicles that respond to cAMP stimulation.

Activation of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) by the alkaline protease from Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen that significantly contributes to the mortality of patients with cystic fibrosis. Chronic infection by Pseudomonas induces sustained immune and inflammatory responses and damage to the airway. The ability of Pseudomonas to resist host defenses is aided, in part, by secreted proteases, which act as virulence factors in multiple modes of infection. Recent studies suggest that misregulation of protease activity in the cystic fibrosis lung may alter fluid secretion and pathogen clearance by proteolytic activation of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC). To evaluate the possibility that proteolytic activation of ENaC may contribute to the virulence of Pseudomonas, primary human bronchial epithelial cells were exposed to P. aeruginosa and ENaC function was assessed by short circuit current measurements. Apical treatment with a strain known to express high levels of alkaline protease (AP) resulted in an increase in basal ENaC current and a loss of trypsin-inducible ENaC current, consistent with sustained activation of ENaC. To further characterize this AP-induced ENaC activation, AP was purified, and its folding, activity, and ability to activate ENaC were assessed. AP folding was efficient under pH and calcium conditions thought to exist in the airway surface liquid of normal and cystic fibrosis (CF) lungs. Short circuit measurements of ENaC in polarized monolayers indicated that AP activated ENaC in immortalized cell lines as well as post-transplant, primary human bronchial epithelial cells from both CF and non-CF patients. This activation was mapped to the γ-subunit of ENaC. Based on these data, patho-mechanisms associated with AP in the CF lung are proposed wherein secretion of AP leads to decreased airway surface liquid volume and a corresponding decrease in mucocilliary clearance of pulmonary pathogens.