Longitudinal assessment of bacterial vaginosis prior to and during incident pregnancy: an observational study in Kenyan adolescent girls and young women.

OBJECTIVE: To determine bacterial vaginosis (BV) status at multiple time points among adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) and assess the impact of pregnancy on their BV status. DESIGN: Longitudinal cohort study. SETTING: Thika, Kenya. PARTICIPANTS: AGYW aged 16-20 years enrolled prior to first sex or reporting only a single lifetime partner. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was relative risk (RR) of BV during pregnancy compared with before pregnancy by analysing longitudinal trends in BV over time. BV risk was estimated using Poisson regression models. RESULTS: A total of 121 AGYW became pregnant in the parent cohort and had BV results before, during or after pregnancy. Point prevalence of BV was 11.0% at visits >12 months pre-pregnancy, 13.0% at 3-12 months pre-pregnancy, 22.1% at <3 months pre-pregnancy and 13.4% during pregnancy. Compared with visits during pregnancy, RR of BV was 1.65 (95% CI: 1.00 to 2.71; p=0.05) at visits <3 months pre-pregnancy, 0.97 (95% CI: 0.62 to 1.52; p=0.90) at visits 3-12 months pre-pregnancy and 0.82 (95% CI: 0.44 to 1.53; p=0.53) at visits 12 months pre-pregnancy. An adjusted analysis including age, income, residence, date of first sex, recent sexual activity and positive sexually transmitted infection test resulted in small changes in risk estimates, with adjusted RR of BV of 1.66 (95% CI: 1.04 to 2.67; p=0.04) at visits <3 months pre-pregnancy compared with visits during pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: BV risk during pregnancy was lower than during the immediate pre-pregnancy period. Hormonal changes in pregnancy may reduce BV.

Experiences and attitudes towards Menstrual Suppression among Women with Bacterial vaginosis Randomised to Continuous Use of NuvaRing in Kenya.

Background: The contraceptive vaginal ring (NuvaRing), one of the Multipurpose Prevention Technologies (MPT) products, is effective in preventing unintended pregnancies and may contribute to reducing the frequency of Bacterial Vaginosis (BV), which is a risk factor for HIV acquisition, transmission, and shedding among women. NuvaRing may cause irregular menstruation, including menstrual suppression, which may influence women's decision on product choice, use, and acceptability. In this prospective cohort study, we assessed women's experiences with menstruation suppression following continued NuvaRing use. Methods: A total of 18 in-depth interviews were conducted using a semi-structured interview guide among purposively selected women with BV in Thika, Kenya, aged 18-40 years, who used NuvaRing continuously. All women received counseling on possibility of menstrual suppression following continuous NuvaRing use. Audio recordings were transcribed verbatim and thematically analyzed. Results: Participants who expected and were aware that menstrual suppression was a possible side effect of Nuvaring accepted its benefits, and expressed acceptance and desire to continue using NuvaRing. Participants who had not anticipated menstrual suppression expressed anxiety and fear, with some expressing desire to continue using NuvaRing but worried about unintended negative consequences. The ability to perform daily activities uninterrupted, reduced expenses on sanitary supplies, enhanced sexual pleasure and relationships, and absence of menstrual pain were benefits of menstrual suppression. Although all participants received counseling on menstrual suppression, some expressed anxiety over the possibility of unintended pregnancy. As a result, they frequented medical facilities for health check-ups and pregnancy tests, and some used combined oral contraceptives to induce menses. Conclusion: Understanding perceptions regarding menstrual suppression is crucial in offering targeted and comprehensive counseling to improve women's understanding of menstruation suppression to influence acceptance and use of NuvaRing. Additionally, improved male involvement in reproductive health concerns and women's autonomy in discussing reproductive health issues with partners is essential.

"I was just concerned about getting pregnant": Attitudes toward pregnancy and contraceptive use among adolescent girls and young women in Thika, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) have a high incidence of unplanned pregnancies, especially in low-resource settings. AGYW assess the overlapping risks of pregnancy, contraception, and STIs as they navigate relationships. Few studies have examined how AGYW consider the comparative risks of their decisions around sexual and reproductive health in this context or how risk perception influences contraceptive use. METHODS: Twenty in-depth interviews (IDIs) and 5 focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with a subset of sexually active AGYW enrolled in the Girls Health Study (GHS), a longitudinal cohort study in Thika, Kenya, assessing HSV-2 incidence in a cohort of AGYW aged 16-20. Interview questions were focused on perspectives and decision-making around sexual and reproductive health. Interviews were conducted in both English and Kiswahili, transcribed, and coded using inductive and deductive approaches to identify emerging themes. RESULTS: Misconceptions about long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARCs), injectables, and daily oral contraceptive pills strongly disincentivized their use among AGYW. Participants described pregnancy as undesirable, and AGYW reported prioritizing contraceptive methods that were effective and reliable in pregnancy prevention, even if not effective in preventing STI/HIV infection. Participants reported that AGYW relied heavily on emergency contraceptive (EC) pills for pregnancy prevention. CONCLUSIONS: Though the goal of avoiding unintended pregnancy was common, this did not suffice to motivate the uptake of long-term contraceptives among AGYWs. Given the convenience, cost-effectiveness, and lower perceived risk of side effects, EC pills were more likely to be accepted as a form of contraception. Understanding the reasons for AGYW's acceptance of certain contraceptive methods over others can help future interventions better target communication and counseling about contraception and influence key drivers of AGYW behavior and decision-making around sexual and reproductive health.

Low prevalence of bacterial vaginosis in Kenyan adolescent girls and rapid incidence after first sex.

BACKGROUND: Bacterial vaginosis is a risk factor for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Adult African women have a high prevalence of bacterial vaginosis, but it is not known when first bacterial vaginosis occurs. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to describe bacterial vaginosis in younger African women, before and after first sex, and to determine the incidence of bacterial vaginosis and significant correlates of bacterial vaginosis incidence and recurrence. STUDY DESIGN: In a prospective observational cohort study enrolling adolescents with limited sexual experience, young women aged 16 to 21 years were recruited in Thika, Kenya. Eligible participants were HIV and herpes simplex virus 2 seronegative and reported 0 or 1 lifetime sexual partner. The Nugent score was determined at quarterly visits from vaginal Gram stains. The trends in bacterial vaginosis were described over time; hazard ratios were calculated using Cox regression, and relative risk of bacterial vaginosis was estimated using generalized estimating equations and Poisson regression. RESULTS: A total of 400 participants with a median age of 18.6 years (interquartile range, 16-21) were enrolled. Of note, 322 participants (80.5%) reported no history of sex, whereas 78 participants (19.5%) reported sex with 1 partner. At enrollment, bacterial vaginosis (Nugent score of ≥7) was uncommon (21/375 [5.6%]). Overall, 144 participants had bacterial vaginosis at least once, for an incidence rate of 16.5 cases per 100 person-years. Before first sex, bacterial vaginosis was present at 2.8% of visits, compared with 13.7% of visits after first sex. An adjusted model of bacterial vaginosis incidence observed that first sex was associated with more than a 2-fold increased bacterial vaginosis risk (adjusted hazard ratio, 2.44; 95% confidence interval, 1.25-4.76; P=.009). Chlamydia diagnosis (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.73; 95% confidence interval, 1.1-2.8; P=.02), and herpes simplex virus 2 seropositivity (adjusted hazard ratio, 2.88; 95% confidence interval, 1.17-7.09; P=.021) were both associated with incident bacterial vaginosis. A multivariate generalized estimating equation model, including all episodes of bacterial vaginosis, demonstrated risk factors, including first sex, sexually transmitted infections, urban residence, recent sex, and no income; the most important risk factor was first sex (adjusted relative risk, 1.92; 95% confidence interval, 1.12-3.31; P=.018). The probability of bacterial vaginosis increased with each subsequent episode; mean Nugent scores increased after each bacterial vaginosis episode. CONCLUSION: Using detailed longitudinal observation, this study found that Kenyan adolescents have almost no bacterial vaginosis before first sex and that initiation of sexual activity was the strongest risk factor for both prevalent bacterial vaginosis and incident bacterial vaginosis.

Effects of primary healthcare reform on routine health information systems (RHISs): a mixed-methods study in Lesotho.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The Ministry of Health of Lesotho and Partners In Health piloted the Lesotho National Primary Health Care Reform (LPHCR) from July 2014 to June 2017 to improve quality and quantity of service delivery and enhance health system management. This initiative included improvement of routine health information systems (RHISs) to map disease burden and reinforce data utilisation for clinical quality improvement. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: The WHO Data Quality Assurance framework's core indicators were used to compare the completeness of health data before versus after the LPHCR in 60 health centres and 6 hospitals across four districts. To examine change in data completeness, we conducted an interrupted time series analysis using multivariable logistic mixed-effects regression. Additionally, we conducted 25 key informant interviews with healthcare workers (HCWs) at the different levels of Lesotho's health system, following a purposive sampling approach. Interviews were analysed using deductive coding based on the Performance of Routine Information System Management framework, which inspected organisational, technical and behavioural factors influencing RHIS processes and outputs associated with the LPHCR. RESULTS: In multivariable analyses, trends in monthly data completion rate were higher after versus before the LPHCR for: documenting first antenatal care visit (adjusted OR (AOR): 1.24, 95% CI: 1.14 to 1.36) and institutional delivery (AOR: 1.19, 95% CI: 1.07 to 1.32). When discussing processes, HCWs highlighted the value of establishing clear roles and responsibilities in reporting under a new organisational structure, improved community programmes among district health management teams, and enhanced data sharing and monitoring by districts. CONCLUSION: The Ministry of Health had a strong data completion rate pre-LPHCR, which was sustained throughout the LPHCR despite increased service utilisation. The data completion rate was optimised through improved behavioural, technical and organisational factors introduced as part of the LPHCR.

Attitudes Toward Menstrual Suppression Among Cyclic and Continuous Contraceptive Vaginal Ring Users in Kenya.

Objective: Multipurpose prevention technologies (MPTs) are developmental dual-purpose options that would provide women with a contraceptive as well as a prevention modality aimed at sexually transmitted infections. The contraceptive vaginal ring (CVR) has many properties that makes it an ideal MPT candidate. The objective of this study is to understand women's attitudes towards menstrual suppression, a potential side effect of using a CVR, and how to address these attitudes for MPT vaginal rings in development. Materials and methods: We analyzed data derived from a subset of cohort study participants (n=45) in Thika, Kenya between January 2016- December 2018. The primary study enrolled 121 women 18-40 years with bacterial vaginosis and randomized them to cyclic or continuous CVR use for eight months. During the 6-month follow-up, a questionnaire eliciting attitudes towards menstrual suppression was administered. Responses to the menstrual suppression questionnaire between participants in the cyclic and continuous CVR use groups were compared. Likert-scale responses were summed to create a menstrual suppression attitude summary score, and a hierarchical cluster analysis was conducted to identify similarities in response patterns among all participants. Results: Totally 81.8% of continuous CVR users believed that one was less likely to get pregnant after using hormonal medication to suppress menses, compared to 47.8% of cyclic CVR users (P=0.02), and were more worried it would cause long-term health effects (86.4% vs 60.9%, p = 0.05). The menstrual suppression attitude summary score ranged from 8 to 42, with lower scores indicating negative attitudes. The summary score identified three distinct clusters. When asked if menstrual suppression effects long-term health; 100% of Cluster 3 was worried compared to 80.8% of Cluster 2 and 46.2% of Cluster 1 (p = 0.03). The average summary score among Cluster 3 (Mean = 14.8, SD = 4.6) was lower (p < 0.001) and women were more worried about discomfort during sex (p=0.05) as well as their sexual partners feeling the ring (p=0.02). Conclusion: Women are more likely to have negative attitudes if they believe menstrual suppression hinders future reproductive health. Education on cycle control and fertility could mitigate negative attitudes and improve uptake of CVRs.

Assessing young Kenyan women's willingness to engage in a peer-delivered HIV self-testing and referral model for PrEP initiation: A qualitative formative research study.

Background: Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is highly effective for HIV prevention, but uptake remains low, especially among adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) in Kenya. A model in which trained AGYW using PrEP deliver HIV self-tests to their close friends and refer them to PrEP may help increase PrEP uptake in this population. To understand AGYW's potential willingness to engage in such a model, we conducted a qualitative formative study in Kenya. Method: We conducted semi-structured in-depth interviews (IDIs) with AGYW (16 to 24 years) in Kiambu County who were determined at risk of HIV acquisition. We purposively recruited "PrEP-naïve" (no prior PrEP use) and "PrEP-experienced" AGYW who used PrEP for at least 1 month within the previous year. We solicited perspectives on initiating/engaging in conversations about HIV risk and PrEP, distributing/receiving HIV self-test kits, and referring/following through on a referral to clinic-based HIV services. We analyzed verbatim transcripts using rapid qualitative analysis and a combination of inductive and deductive approaches, with the latter informed by the Integrated Behavior Model (IBM). Results: From August to December 2020, we conducted 30 IDIs: 15 with PrEP-experienced and 15 with PrEP-naïve AGYW. Participants' median age was 20 [interquartile range (IQR): 20-22]. Overall, most participants anticipated that they would be willing to engage in this model. PrEP-experienced AGYW emphasized the salience of their concerns about friends' HIV risk behaviors, with several noting that they are already in the habit of discussing PrEP with friends. Many additionally expressed positive attitudes toward the proposed target behaviors, perceived these to be normative among AGYW, and expressed confidence in their ability to carry out the behaviors with proper support. Although few participants had HIVST experience, nearly all anticipated they would be able to use an HIV self-test kit correctly if provided instruction. Conclusion: The Kenyan AGYW who participated in this study generally anticipated that they would be willing to engage in a formal peer PrEP referral model enhanced with peer-delivered HIV self-tests. Future research is needed to pilot test this model to determine its acceptability, feasibility, and effect on HIVST and PrEP uptake within this population.

"Spoiled" girls: Understanding social influences on adolescent contraceptive decision-making in Kenya.

OBJECTIVES: Despite significant public health emphasis on unintended pregnancy prevention among adolescent girls and young women in Sub-Saharan Africa, there is a gap in understanding how adolescents' own reproductive priorities and the social influences on their decision-making align and compete. We examined the social context of contraceptive decision-making among Kenyan female adolescents. METHODS: Using community-based sampling, we conducted 40 in-depth interviews and 6 focus group discussions among sexually-active or partnered adolescent girls and young women aged 15-19 in the Nyanza region of Kenya. We analyzed the data in Dedoose using an inductive, grounded theory approach, and developed a conceptual model from the data illustrating social influences on adolescent contraceptive decision-making. RESULTS: Participants viewed adolescent pregnancy as unacceptable, and described severe social, financial, and health consequences of unintended pregnancy, including abortion under unsafe conditions. Yet, their contraceptive behaviors often did not reflect their desire to delay pregnancy. Contraceptive decision-making was influenced by multiple social factors, centering on the intersecting stigmas of adolescent female sexuality, pregnancy, and contraceptive use, as well as unequal power in sexual relationships. To prioritize pregnancy prevention, adolescents must navigate conflicting social norms and power dynamics, and put their perceived future fertility at risk. CONCLUSIONS: Contraceptive decision-making among Kenyan female adolescents is strongly influenced by opposing social norms within families, communities, and sexual relationships, which compel them to risk stigma whether they use a contraceptive method or become pregnant as adolescents. These findings put into perspective adolescents' seemingly incongruent pregnancy preferences and contraceptive behaviors. Interventions to address adolescent unintended pregnancy should focus on supporting adolescent decision-making agency, addressing fertility-related contraceptive concerns, and promoting innovative contraceptive access points rather than increasing contraceptive prevalence.

HIV risk and pre-exposure prophylaxis interest among women seeking post-abortion care in Kenya: a cross-sectional study.

INTRODUCTION: Post-abortion clinics located in regions with high HIV burden may ideal locations to integrate counselling and delivery of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), aligning with normative goals for integrated delivery of HIV and reproductive health care. The objective of this study was to gauge the degree to which Kenyan women seeking care for a pregnancy loss, including induced abortion, are at risk for HIV and whether women would welcome an introduction to PrEP prior to discharge from post-abortion care. METHODS: We conducted a mixed-methods study from August 2019 to February 2020 with women ages 15 to 30 recruited sequentially as they were accessing post-abortion care at public and private facilities in Thika and Kisumu, Kenya. Data collection was through a cross-sectional survey and laboratory testing for common sexually transmitted infections (N = 200), and in-depth interviews (N = 30). Descriptive statistics summarize PrEP knowledge and referrals and a multivariable log-link binomial model estimated correlates of receiving a referral for PrEP. Qualitative data were analysed using inductive and deductive approaches. RESULTS: Among 200 HIV-negative women (median age 21.0, interquartile range 19.0 to 22.0), the prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis was 18.2% and Neisseria gonorrhoeae was 2.0%. Half of the women scored ≥5 on a validated tool that would correspond to an expected HIV incidence of 9.5% per year. Approximately half (55.8%) of women were familiar with PrEP prior to the study and 33.3% received a referral from study staff to a clinic offering PrEP. In qualitative interviews, women expressed interest in accessing PrEP from the gynaecology ward that provided post-abortion care but they preferred alternative locations for PrEP refills. CONCLUSIONS: Kenyan women accessing post-abortion care have substantial HIV risk and were favourable about the idea of receiving support to initiate PrEP as part of care offered during post-abortion care. These settings can be integrated into national PrEP programmes as locations providing PrEP referrals and initiation.

Protection at First Sexual Intercourse Among Adolescent Girls and Young Women in Kenya.

Adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) are at high risk of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including at first sexual intercourse. The literature is scarce on factors influencing use of protective strategies at this critical time. We conducted 20 in-depth interviews and five focus group discussions with purposively sampled AGYW aged 16-20 years who reported first sex while enrolled in a larger cohort study and willing to participate. All AGYW were counseled on HIV prevention and had access to reproductive health information and services. Data collected were transcribed, translated and analyzed thematically. We identified two approaches to first sex. In one approach, the AGYW facilitated protection use, and those AGYW reported intention and preparation to initiate sexual activity and ability to request condom use, as well as their male partner's willingness to use and provide condoms. In another approach, AGYW experienced first sexual intercourse without agency (the feeling of control over actions and their consequences [Moore, 2016]) and described lack of prior intentions and planning, discomfort with discussions about sex and condom use, and desire to experience sexual pleasure as reported by peers. No AGYW mentioned parents/adults as playing any role as facilitators of protection use at first sex, highlighting the need for further research on the missing gap. The AGYW were trusting of verbal reports by male partners describing themselves as having never engaged in sex, HIV negative, and free of STIs. We found that some AGYW were empowered to plan, discuss, and request protection at first sex, and others did not take agency. First sex is a time of vulnerability where innovative strategies are needed to strengthen AGYW's agency and promote condom use and other HIV/STI prevention methods.

Psychosocial Experiences of Adolescent Girls and Young Women Subsequent to an Abortion in Sub-saharan Africa and Globally: A Systematic Review.

Introduction: Unmet need for contraception, unintended pregnancy, and access to safe abortion remain global challenges preventing adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) from achieving optimal reproductive health. Furthermore, AGYW face difficulties navigating sexual autonomy, lack of agency or experience negotiating sexual acts, and challenges accessing sexual health information and services. The aim of this systematic review is to assess the psychosocial outcomes of AGYW who have experienced an abortion with particular focus on sub-Saharan Africa, which bears the global burden of unintended pregnancy and risk of death due to unsafe abortion. Materials and Methods: The systematic review was registered and used search terms to identify peer-reviewed articles relevant to "post-abortion," "psychosocial," "adolescent girls," and "young women" from PubMed, Embase, PsycInfo, and Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature. Examples of psychosocial experiences include quality of life, stigma, and mental health outcomes. Rayyan software (Qatar, 2020) was used by two reviewers to assess the relevance of each article to psychosocial outcomes of AGYW any time after an abortion or accessing post-abortion services. Analysis was conducted with a focus on data from Africa and comparisons are made to non-African settings. Results: A total of 2,406 articles were identified and 38 articles fit the criteria. Six selected articles were from Africa, including Ghana, Kenya, Uganda, and Zambia, and the remaining articles were from other regions. Themes around stigma, shame, and abandonment associated with the experience of abortion were prevalent in all regions. Studies of psychosocial outcomes of AGYW in sub-Saharan Africa highlight social isolation as well as learned resilience among young women who abort. Discussion: Navigating abortion as an AGYW involves managing internalized and perceived stigma, fear of violence, secrecy, and growing resilient in order to overcome the significant barriers that society and culture place on access to an essential service in sexual and reproductive health. Post-abortion psychosocial outcomes highlight the need for support services and investigation of contexts that perpetuate and necessitate unsafe abortion. Empowerment of AGYW may present an important opportunity to build self-agency and positive coping mechanisms to withstand social pressures during stigmatizing circumstances associated with abortion.