Glucose transporters are key components of the human glucostat.

Mouse models are extensively utilized in metabolic studies. However, inherent differences between the species, notably their blood glucose levels, hampered data translation into clinical settings. In this study, we confirmed GLUT1 to be the predominantly expressed glucose transporter in both adult and fetal human ß cells. In comparison, GLUT2 is detected in a small yet significant subpopulation of adult ß cells and is expressed to a greater extent in fetal ß cells. Notably, GLUT1/2 expression in INS+ cells from human stem cell-derived islet-like clusters (SC-islets) exhibited a closer resemblance to that observed in fetal islets. Transplantation of primary human islets or SC-islets, but not murine islets, lowered murine blood glucose to the human glycemic range, emphasizing the critical role of ß cells in establishing species-specific glycemia. We further demonstrate the functional requirements of GLUT1 and GLUT2 in glucose uptake and insulin secretion through chemically inhibiting GLUT1 in primary islets and SCislets, and genetically disrupting GLUT2 in SC-islets. Finally, we developed a mathematical model to predict changes in glucose uptake and insulin secretion as a function of GLUT1/2 expression. Collectively, our findings illustrate the crucial roles of GLUTs in human ß cells, and identify them as key components in establishing species-specific glycemic setpoints.

A bipartite element with allele-specific functions safeguards DNA methylation imprints at the Dlk1-Dio3 locus.

Loss of imprinting (LOI) results in severe developmental defects, but the mechanisms preventing LOI remain incompletely understood. Here, we dissect the functional components of the imprinting control region of the essential Dlk1-Dio3 locus (called IG-DMR) in pluripotent stem cells. We demonstrate that the IG-DMR consists of two antagonistic elements: a paternally methylated CpG island that prevents recruitment of TET dioxygenases and a maternally unmethylated non-canonical enhancer that ensures expression of the Gtl2 lncRNA by counteracting de novo DNA methyltransferases. Genetic or epigenetic editing of these elements leads to distinct LOI phenotypes with characteristic alternations of allele-specific gene expression, DNA methylation, and 3D chromatin topology. Although repression of the Gtl2 promoter results in dysregulated imprinting, the stability of LOI phenotypes depends on the IG-DMR, suggesting a functional hierarchy. These findings establish the IG-DMR as a bipartite control element that maintains imprinting by allele-specific restriction of the DNA (de)methylation machinery.

QSER1 protects DNA methylation valleys from de novo methylation.

DNA methylation is essential to mammalian development, and dysregulation can cause serious pathological conditions. Key enzymes responsible for deposition and removal of DNA methylation are known, but how they cooperate to regulate the methylation landscape remains a central question. Using a knockin DNA methylation reporter, we performed a genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screen in human embryonic stem cells to discover DNA methylation regulators. The top screen hit was an uncharacterized gene, QSER1, which proved to be a key guardian of bivalent promoters and poised enhancers of developmental genes, especially those residing in DNA methylation valleys (or canyons). We further demonstrate genetic and biochemical interactions of QSER1 and TET1, supporting their cooperation to safeguard transcriptional and developmental programs from DNMT3-mediated de novo methylation.

The Genetic Program of Pancreatic ß-Cell Replication In Vivo.

The molecular program underlying infrequent replication of pancreatic ß-cells remains largely inaccessible. Using transgenic mice expressing green fluorescent protein in cycling cells, we sorted live, replicating ß-cells and determined their transcriptome. Replicating ß-cells upregulate hundreds of proliferation-related genes, along with many novel putative cell cycle components. Strikingly, genes involved in ß-cell functions, namely, glucose sensing and insulin secretion, were repressed. Further studies using single-molecule RNA in situ hybridization revealed that in fact, replicating ß-cells double the amount of RNA for most genes, but this upregulation excludes genes involved in ß-cell function. These data suggest that the quiescence-proliferation transition involves global amplification of gene expression, except for a subset of tissue-specific genes, which are "left behind" and whose relative mRNA amount decreases. Our work provides a unique resource for the study of replicating ß-cells in vivo.

Nuclear Retention of mRNA in Mammalian Tissues.

mRNA is thought to predominantly reside in the cytoplasm, where it is translated and eventually degraded. Although nuclear retention of mRNA has a regulatory potential, it is considered extremely rare in mammals. Here, to explore the extent of mRNA retention in metabolic tissues, we combine deep sequencing of nuclear and cytoplasmic RNA fractions with single-molecule transcript imaging in mouse beta cells, liver, and gut. We identify a wide range of protein-coding genes for which the levels of spliced polyadenylated mRNA are higher in the nucleus than in the cytoplasm. These include genes such as the transcription factor ChREBP, Nlrp6, Glucokinase, and Glucagon receptor. We demonstrate that nuclear retention of mRNA can efficiently buffer cytoplasmic transcript levels from noise that emanates from transcriptional bursts. Our study challenges the view that transcripts predominantly reside in the cytoplasm and reveals a role of the nucleus in dampening gene expression noise.

Transient acquisition of pluripotency during somatic cell transdifferentiation with iPSC reprogramming factors.

Somatic cells can be transdifferentiated to other cell types without passing through a pluripotent state by ectopic expression of appropriate transcription factors. Recent reports have proposed an alternative transdifferentiation method in which fibroblasts are directly converted to various mature somatic cell types by brief expression of the induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) reprogramming factors Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc (OSKM) followed by cell expansion in media that promote lineage differentiation. Here we test this method using genetic lineage tracing for expression of endogenous Nanog and Oct4 and for X chromosome reactivation, as these events mark acquisition of pluripotency. We show that the vast majority of reprogrammed cardiomyocytes or neural stem cells obtained from mouse fibroblasts by OSKM-induced 'transdifferentiation' pass through a transient pluripotent state, and that their derivation is molecularly coupled to iPSC formation mechanisms. Our findings underscore the importance of defining trajectories during cell reprogramming by various methods.

Derivation of novel human ground state naive pluripotent stem cells.

Mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts, and can be preserved in vitro in a naive inner-cell-mass-like configuration by providing exogenous stimulation with leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and small molecule inhibition of ERK1/ERK2 and GSK3ß signalling (termed 2i/LIF conditions). Hallmarks of naive pluripotency include driving Oct4 (also known as Pou5f1) transcription by its distal enhancer, retaining a pre-inactivation X chromosome state, and global reduction in DNA methylation and in H3K27me3 repressive chromatin mark deposition on developmental regulatory gene promoters. Upon withdrawal of 2i/LIF, naive mouse ES cells can drift towards a primed pluripotent state resembling that of the post-implantation epiblast. Although human ES cells share several molecular features with naive mouse ES cells, they also share a variety of epigenetic properties with primed murine epiblast stem cells (EpiSCs). These include predominant use of the proximal enhancer element to maintain OCT4 expression, pronounced tendency for X chromosome inactivation in most female human ES cells, increase in DNA methylation and prominent deposition of H3K27me3 and bivalent domain acquisition on lineage regulatory genes. The feasibility of establishing human ground state naive pluripotency in vitro with equivalent molecular and functional features to those characterized in mouse ES cells remains to be defined. Here we establish defined conditions that facilitate the derivation of genetically unmodified human naive pluripotent stem cells from already established primed human ES cells, from somatic cells through induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cell reprogramming or directly from blastocysts. The novel naive pluripotent cells validated herein retain molecular characteristics and functional properties that are highly similar to mouse naive ES cells, and distinct from conventional primed human pluripotent cells. This includes competence in the generation of cross-species chimaeric mouse embryos that underwent organogenesis following microinjection of human naive iPS cells into mouse morulas. Collectively, our findings establish new avenues for regenerative medicine, patient-specific iPS cell disease modelling and the study of early human development in vitro and in vivo.

Deterministic direct reprogramming of somatic cells to pluripotency.

Somatic cells can be inefficiently and stochastically reprogrammed into induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells by exogenous expression of Oct4 (also called Pou5f1), Sox2, Klf4 and Myc (hereafter referred to as OSKM). The nature of the predominant rate-limiting barrier(s) preventing the majority of cells to successfully and synchronously reprogram remains to be defined. Here we show that depleting Mbd3, a core member of the Mbd3/NuRD (nucleosome remodelling and deacetylation) repressor complex, together with OSKM transduction and reprogramming in naive pluripotency promoting conditions, result in deterministic and synchronized iPS cell reprogramming (near 100% efficiency within seven days from mouse and human cells). Our findings uncover a dichotomous molecular function for the reprogramming factors, serving to reactivate endogenous pluripotency networks while simultaneously directly recruiting the Mbd3/NuRD repressor complex that potently restrains the reactivation of OSKM downstream target genes. Subsequently, the latter interactions, which are largely depleted during early pre-implantation development in vivo, lead to a stochastic and protracted reprogramming trajectory towards pluripotency in vitro. The deterministic reprogramming approach devised here offers a novel platform for the dissection of molecular dynamics leading to establishing pluripotency at unprecedented flexibility and resolution.