Effect of E-beam treatment on the chemistry and on the antioxidant activity of lycopene from dry tomato peel and tomato powder.

Tomato powder (TP) and dry tomato peel (DTP) have been previously used in our laboratory as a source of lycopene to manufacture meat products ready-to-eat (RTE) submitted to E-beam irradiation with good technological and sensory results. Present work describes the studies performed in order to investigate the effect of radiation on chemical changes and antioxidant properties of lycopene. DTP and TP were irradiated (4 kGy). Changes on lycopene were analyzed by HPLC; inhibition of reactive oxygen species (ROS), possible modulation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) cascade, nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NP-κB) activation and expression of proteins involved in oxidation stress were analyzed in RAT-1 fibroblasts cell culture. Radiation reduced the content of all-E-lycopene and increased (Z)-lycopene, lycopene isomerization, and degradation being higher in DTP than in TP. E-Beam treatment increased the antioxidant ability of both DTP and TP in inhibiting spontaneous and H2O2-induced oxidative stress in cultured fibroblasts. Antioxidant activity was higher in DTP than in TP samples.

Comparative antioxidant effects of lycopene, apo-10'-lycopenoic acid and apo-14'-lycopenoic acid in human macrophages exposed to H2O2 and cigarette smoke extract.

Much of the beneficial effects of tomato lycopene in the prevention of chronic diseases has been attributed to its antioxidant properties, which could be mediated by its metabolites and/or oxidation products. However, the biological functions of these lycopene derivatives remain still unknown. In the present study, we evaluated and compared the antioxidant efficacy of the lycopene eccentric cleavage products apo-10'-lycopenoic acid and apo-14'-lycopenoic acid in counteracting the oxidative effects of H(2)O(2) and cigarette smoke extract (CSE) in THP-1 macrophages. Both apo-10'-lycopenoic acid and apo-14'-lycopenoic acid were able to inhibit spontaneous and H(2)O(2)-induced ROS production in a dose-dependent manner. Such an effect was accompanied by an inhibition of MAPK phosphorylation, by NF-κB inactivation, and by inhibition of hsp-70 and hsp-90 expressions. Both apo-lycopenoic acids also decreased CSE-induced ROS production, 8-OHdG formation and reduced the increase in NOX-4 and COX-2 expressions caused by CSE. However, in both the models of oxidative stress, apo-14'-lycopenoic acid was much more potent as an antioxidant than apo-10'-lycopenoic acid, showing antioxidant properties similar to lycopene. These data strongly suggest that apo-lycopenoic acids, and particularly apo-14'-lycopenoic acid, may mediate some of the antioxidant functions of lycopene in cells.

Antioxidant capacity of tomato seed oil in solution and its redox properties in cultured macrophages.

The health benefits of tomato seed oil (TSO) have been suggested to be related to its antioxidant activity, although at the moment not much information is available on the antioxidant effects of TSO in biological systems. In this paper, we evaluated the antioxidant capacity of TSO using different spectrophotometrical antioxidant assays (LPSC, FRAP, αTEAC, DPPH). Moreover, we determined the ability of TSO in inhibiting oxidative stress in human cultured macrophages. The peroxyl radical scavenging LPSC assay was the most sensitive assay to detect the antioxidant capacity of the TSO, followed by the DPPH, FRAP, and αTEAC assay. TSO was able to counteract spontaneous and H2O2-induced oxidative stress in human macrophages, limiting intracellular ROS production and controlling oxidative stress signaling. In particular, TSO was able to decrease the phosphorylation of the MAPK ERK1/2, JNK, and p-38, activation of the redox-sensitive NF-kB, and expression of the heat shock proteins 70 and 90. When the antioxidant capacity of TSO was compared with that of purified lycopene, inhibition of ROS production by TSO was remarkably higher. This was due to the high content of other antioxidants in TSO, including (5Z)-, (9Z)-, (13Z)-, and (15Z)-lycopene isomers, ß-carotene, lutein, γ-tocopherol, and α-tocopherol.

Correction: Lycopene Inhibits NF-kB-Mediated IL-8 Expression and Changes Redox and PPARγ Signalling in Cigarette Smoke-Stimulated Macrophages.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019652.].

Lycopene as a guardian of redox signalling.

It has been suggested that lycopene, the major carotenoid found in tomato, exhibits health-beneficial effects by virtue of its antioxidant activity. However, recent literature suggests that lycopene can actually "perform" roles independent of such capacity and involving a direct modulation of redox signalling. Reactive oxygen species are known to act as second messengers in the modulation of cellular signalling leading to gene expression changes and pharmacological responses. Lycopene may control redox-sensitive molecular targets, affecting enzyme activities and expressions and modulating the activation of MAPKs and transcription factors, such as NF-κB and AP-1, Nrf2.

Modulation of MMP-9 pathway by lycopene in macrophages and fibroblasts exposed to cigarette smoke.

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) has been implicated in both inflammation and fibrosis. It has been reported that cigarette smoke induced MMP-9 expression and that lycopene may act as an anti-inflammatory agent and may counteract several signal pathways affected by cigarette smoke exposure. However, at the moment, it is unknown if lycopene may inhibit cigarette smoke-induced MMP-9 expression. Presently, we examined the inhibitory mechanism of lycopene on MMP-9 induction in cultured human macrophages (THP-1 cells), in isolated rat alveolar macrophages (AMs) and in cultured RAT-1 fibroblasts, all cellular sources of MMP-9, exposed to cigarette smoke extract (CSE). CSE induced a marked increase in MMP-9 expression in cultured as well as in isolated cells. A 8 h-lycopene pre-treatment (0.5-2 µM) reduced CSE-mediated MMP-9 induction in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Lycopene attenuated CSE-mediated activation of Ras, enhancing the levels of this protein in the cytosolic fraction. Moreover, lycopene inhibited CSE-induced ERK1/2 and NF-κB activation in a dose-dependent manner. Lycopene-mediated inhibition of MMP-9 was reversed by mevalonate and associated with a reduced expression of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase. Taken together, these results suggest that lycopene may inhibit CSE-mediated MMP-9 induction, primarily by blocking prenylation of Ras in a signaling pathway, in which MEK1/2-ERK1/2 and NF-κB are involved.

Lycopene inhibits NF-kB-mediated IL-8 expression and changes redox and PPARγ signalling in cigarette smoke-stimulated macrophages.

Increasing evidence suggests that lycopene, the major carotenoid present in tomato, may be preventive against smoke-induced cell damage. However, the mechanisms of such a prevention are still unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of lycopene on the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-8 induced by cigarette smoke and the possible mechanisms implicated. Therefore, human THP-1 macrophages were exposed to cigarette smoke extract (CSE), alone and following a 6-h pre-treatment with lycopene (0.5-2 µM). CSE enhanced IL-8 production in a time- and a dose-dependent manner. Lycopene pre-treatment resulted in a significant inhibition of CSE-induced IL-8 expression at both mRNA and protein levels. NF-kB controlled the transcription of IL-8 induced by CSE, since PDTC prevented such a production. Lycopene suppressed CSE-induced NF-kB DNA binding, NF-kB/p65 nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of IKKα and IkBα. Such an inhibition was accompanied by a decrease in CSE-induced ROS production and NOX-4 expression. Lycopene further inhibited CSE-induced phosphorylation of the redox-sensitive ERK1/2, JNK and p38 MAPKs. Moreover, the carotenoid increased PPARγ levels which, in turn, enhanced PTEN expression and decreased pAKT levels in CSE-exposed cells. Such effects were abolished by the PPARγ inhibitor GW9662. Taken together, our data indicate that lycopene prevented CSE-induced IL-8 production through a mechanism involving an inactivation of NF-kB. NF-kB inactivation was accompanied by an inhibition of redox signalling and an activation of PPARγ signalling. The ability of lycopene in inhibiting IL-8 production, NF-kB/p65 nuclear translocation, and redox signalling and in increasing PPARγ expression was also found in isolated rat alveolar macrophages exposed to CSE. These findings provide novel data on new molecular mechanisms by which lycopene regulates cigarette smoke-driven inflammation in human macrophages.

Lycopene regulation of cholesterol synthesis and efflux in human macrophages.

Hypercholesterolemia is one of the most important risk factors for atherosclerosis, and tomato lycopene has been suggested to have beneficial effects against such a disease, although the exact molecular mechanism is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that lycopene may exert its antiatherogenic role through changes in cholesterol metabolism. Incubation of THP-1 cells with lycopene (0.5-2 µM) dose-dependently reduced intracellular total cholesterol. Such an effect was associated with a decrease in reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase expression and with an increase in ABCA1 and caveolin-1 (cav-1) expressions. In addition, lycopene enhanced RhoA levels in the cytosolic fraction, activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and liver X receptor alpha expressions. Concomitant addition of lycopene and the PPARγ inhibitor GW9662 or lycopene and mevalonate blocked the carotenoid-induced increase in ABCA1 and cav-1 expressions. These results imply a potential role of lycopene in attenuating foam cell formation and, therefore, in preventing atherosclerosis by a cascade mechanism involving inhibition of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase, RhoA inactivation and subsequent increase in PPARγ and liver X receptor alpha activities and enhancement of ABCA1 and cav-1 expressions.

Lycopene prevention of oxysterol-induced proinflammatory cytokine cascade in human macrophages: inhibition of NF-κB nuclear binding and increase in PPARγ expression.

It is now well accepted that oxysterols play important roles in the formation of atherosclerotic plaque, involving cytotoxic, pro-oxidant and proinflammatory processes. It has been recently suggested that tomato lycopene may act as a preventive agent in atherosclerosis, although the exact mechanism of such a protection is not clarified. The main aim of this study was to investigate whether lycopene is able to counteract oxysterol-induced proinflammatory cytokines cascade in human macrophages, limiting the formation of atherosclerotic plaque. Therefore, THP-1 macrophages were exposed to two different oxysterols, such as 7-keto-cholesterol (4-16 µM) and 25-hydroxycholesterol (2-4 µM), alone and in combination with lycopene (0.5-2 µM). Both oxysterols enhanced pro-inflammatory cytokine [interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor α) secretion and mRNA levels in a dose-dependent manner, although at different extent. These effects were associated with an increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production through an enhanced expression of NAD(P)H oxidase. Moreover, a net increment of phosphorylation of extracellular regulated kinase 1/2, p-38 and Jun N-terminal kinase and of nuclear factor kB (NF-κB) nuclear binding was observed. Lycopene prevented oxysterol-induced increase in pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion and expression. Such an effect was accompanied by an inhibition of oxysterol-induced ROS production, mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation and NF-κB activation. The inhibition of oxysterol-induced cytokine stimulation was also mimicked by the specific NF-κB inhibitor pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate. Moreover, the carotenoid increased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ levels in THP-1 macrophages. Taken all together, these data bring new information on the anti-atherogenic properties of lycopene, and on its mechanisms of action in atherosclerosis prevention.

Tomato lycopene and lung cancer prevention: from experimental to human studies.

Increasing evidence suggests that tomato lycopene may be preventive against the formation and the development of lung cancer. Experimental studies demonstrated that lycopene may inhibit the growth of several cultured lung cancer cells and prevent lung tumorigenesis in animal models through various mechanisms, including a modulation of redox status, cell cycle arrest and/or apoptosis induction, a regulation of growth factor signaling, changes in cell growth-related enzymes, an enhancement of gap junction communication and a prevention of smoke-induced inflammation. In addition, lycopene also inhibited cell invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Several lycopene metabolites have been identified, raising the question as to whether the preventive effects of lycopene on cancer risk is, at least in part, due to its metabolites. Despite these promising reports, it is difficult at the moment to directly relate available experimental data to human pathophysiology. More well controlled clinical intervention trials are needed to further clarify the exact role of lycopene in the prevention of lung cancer cell growth. Such studies should take into consideration subject selection, specific markers of analysis, the levels of carotenoids being tested, metabolism and isomerization of lycopene, interaction with other bioactive food components. This article reviews data on the cancer preventive activities of lycopene, possible mechanisms involved, and the relationship between lycopene consumption and human cancer risk.

Lycopene induces cell growth inhibition by altering mevalonate pathway and Ras signaling in cancer cell lines.

Several evidences suggest that cancer cells have abnormal cholesterol biosynthetic pathways and prenylation of small guanosine triphosphatase proteins. Tomato lycopene has been suggested to have beneficial effects against certain types of cancer, including that of prostate, although the exact molecular mechanism(s) is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that lycopene may exert its antitumor effects through changes in mevalonate pathway and in Ras activation. Incubation of the Ras-activated prostatic carcinoma LNCaP cells with a 24 h lycopene treatment (2.5-10 µM) dose dependently reduced intracellular total cholesterol by decreasing 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase expression and by inactivating Ras, as evidenced by its translocation from cell membranes to cytosol. Concomitantly, lycopene reduced the Ras-dependent activation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB). Such a reduction was parallel to an inhibition of reactive oxygen species production and to a decrease in the phosphorylation ofc-jun N-terminal kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and p38. These effects were also accompanied by an arrest of cell cycle progression and by apoptosis induction, as evidenced by a decrease in cyclin D1 and phospho-AKT levels and by an increase in p21, p27 and p53 levels and in Bax:Bcl-2 ratio. The addition of mevalonate prevented the growth-inhibitory effects of lycopene as well as its increase in Ras cytoplasmatic accumulation and the subsequent changes in NF-κB. The ability of lycopene in inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase expression and cell growth and in inactivating Ras was also found in prostate PC-3, colon HCT-116 and HT-29 and lung BEN cancer cells. These findings provide a novel mechanistic insight into the growth-inhibitory effects of lycopene in cancer.

Lycopene in atherosclerosis prevention: an integrated scheme of the potential mechanisms of action from cell culture studies.

Increasing evidence suggests that lycopene may protect against atherosclerosis, although, the exact mechanism(s) is still unknown. Because lycopene is an efficient antioxidant, it has been proposed for a long time that this property may be responsible for its beneficial effects. Consistent with this, the carotenoid has been demonstrated to inhibit ROS production in vitro and to protect LDL from oxidation. However, recently, other mechanisms have been evoked and include: prevention of endothelial injury; modulation of lipid metabolism through a control of cholesterol synthesis and oxysterol toxic activities; reduction of inflammatory response through changes in cytokine production; inhibition of smooth muscle cell proliferation through regulation of molecular pathways involved in cell proliferation and apoptosis. Focusing on cell culture studies, this review summarizes the experimental evidence for a role of lycopene in the different phases of atherosclerotic process.

Lycopene prevents 7-ketocholesterol-induced oxidative stress, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in human macrophages.

The present study was undertaken to examine whether lycopene is able to counteract 7-ketocholesterol (7-KC)-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in human macrophages. Human THP-1 macrophages were exposed to 7-KC (10-25 microM) alone and in combination with lycopene (0.5-2 microM), and we monitored changes in cell oxidative status [reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, NOX-4, hsp70 and hsp90 expressions, 8-OHdG formation] and in cell proliferation and apoptosis. After 24 h of treatment, lycopene significantly reduced the increase in ROS production and in 8-OHdG formation induced by the oxysterol in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, the carotenoid strongly prevented the increase of NOX-4, hsp70 and hsp90 expressions as well as the phosphorylation of the redox-sensitive p38, JNK and ERK1/2 induced by the oxysterol. The attenuation of 7-KC-induced oxidative stress by lycopene coincided with a normalization of cell growth in human macrophages. Lycopene prevented the arrest in G0/G1 phase of cell cycle induced by the oxysterol and counteracted the increased expression of p53 and p21. Concomitantly, it inhibited 7-KC-induced apoptosis, by limiting caspase-3 activation and the modulatory effects of 7-KC on AKT, Bcl-2, Bcl-xL and Bax. Comparing the effects of lycopene, beta-carotene and (5Z)-lycopene on ROS production, cell growth and apoptosis show that lycopene and its isomer were more effective than beta-carotene in counteracting the dangerous effects of 7-KC in human macrophages. Our study suggests that lycopene may act as a potential antiatherogenic agent by preventing 7-KC-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in human macrophages.

Growth-inhibitory effects of the astaxanthin-rich alga Haematococcus pluvialis in human colon cancer cells.

The growth-inhibitory effects of the astaxanthin-rich Haematococcus pluvialis were studied in HCT-116 colon cancer cells. H. pluvialis extract (5-25 microg/ml) inhibited cell growth in a dose- and time-dependent manner, by arresting cell cycle progression and by promoting apoptosis. At 25 microg/ml of H. pluvialis extract, an increase of p53, p21(WAF-1/CIP-1) and p27 expression (220%, 160%, 250%, respectively) was observed, concomitantly with a decrease of cyclin D1 expression (58%) and AKT phosphorylation (21%). Moreover, the extract, at the same concentration, strongly up-regulated apoptosis by modifying the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL, and increased the phosphorylation of p38, JNK, and ERK1/2 by 160%, 242%, 280%, respectively. Growth-inhibitory effects by H. pluvialis were also observed in HT-29, LS-174, WiDr, SW-480 cells. This study suggests that H. pluvialis may protect from colon cancer.