Recent progress and major gaps in the vaccine development for African swine fever.

The swine industry across the globe is recently facing a devastating situation imparted by a highly contagious and deadly viral disease, African swine fever. The disease is caused by a DNA virus, the African swine fever virus (ASFV) of the genus Asfivirus. ASFV affects both wild boars and domestic pigs resulting in an acute form of hemorrhagic fever. Since the first report in 1921, the disease remains endemic in some of the African countries. However, the recent occurrence of ASF outbreaks in Asia led to a fresh and formidable challenge to the global swine production industry. Culling of the infected animals along with the implementation of strict sanitary measures remains the only options to control this devastating disease. Efforts to develop an effective and safe vaccine against ASF began as early as in the mid-1960s. Different approaches have been employed for the development of effective ASF vaccines including inactivated vaccines, subunit vaccines, DNA vaccines, virus-vectored vaccines, and live attenuated vaccines (LAVs). Inactivated vaccines are a non-feasible strategy against ASF due to their inability to generate a complete cellular immune response. However genetically engineered vaccines, such as subunit vaccines, DNA vaccines, and virus vector vaccines, represent tailored approaches with minimal adverse effects and enhanced safety profiles. As per the available data, gene deleted LAVs appear to be the most potential vaccine candidates. Currently, a gene deleted LAV (ASFV-G-∆I177L), developed in Vietnam, stands as the sole commercially available vaccine against ASF. The major barrier to the goal of developing an effective vaccine is the critical gaps in the knowledge of ASFV biology and the immune response induced by ASFV infection. The precise contribution of various hosts, vectors, and environmental factors in the virus transmission must also be investigated in depth to unravel the disease epidemiology. In this review, we mainly focus on the recent progress in vaccine development against ASF and the major gaps associated with it.

Comparative genomics of Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis unravels the gene sharing, virulence factors and SNP diversity among the standard, vaccine and field strains.

Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis are the primary etiological agents of brucellosis in large and small ruminants, respectively. There are limited comparative genomic studies involving Brucella strains that explore the relatedness among both species. In this study, we involved strains (n=44) representing standard, vaccine and Indian field origin for pangenome, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and phylogenetic analysis. Both species shared a common gene pool representing 2884 genes out of a total 3244 genes. SNP-based phylogenetic analysis indicated higher SNP diversity among B. melitensis (3824) strains in comparison to B. abortus (540) strains, and a clear demarcation was identified between standard/vaccine and field strains. The analysis for virulence genes revealed that virB3, virB7, ricA, virB5, ipx5, wbkC, wbkB, and acpXL genes were highly conserved in most of the Brucella strains. Interestingly, virB10 gene was found to have high variability among the B. abortus strains. The cgMLST analysis revealed distinct sequence types for the standard/vaccine and field strains. B. abortus strains from north-eastern India fall within similar sequence type differing from other strains. In conclusion, the analysis revealed a highly shared core genome among two Brucella species. SNP analysis revealed B. melitensis strains exhibit high diversity as compared to B. abortus strains. Strains with absence or high polymorphism of virulence genes can be exploited for the development of novel vaccine candidates effective against both B. abortus and B. melitensis.

In vitro virulotyping, antifungal susceptibility testing and DNA fingerprinting of Microsporum canis strains of canine and feline origin.

Microsporum canis is considered the common dermatophyte agent associated with ringworm in felines and canines. In the present study, we sampled n = 548 felines and canines for the probable isolation of M. canis. The rate of isolation from the cats and dogs was 70.27 % (52/74) and 1.68 % (8/474), respectively and Persian cats were found to be highly susceptible to M. canis infection. The strains were evaluated for their production of phospholipase, lipase, catalase, and hemolysis and their ability to grow at 35 â„ƒ. All the strains were identified as low producers of catalase and n = 17 strains exhibited high thermotolerance ability. Terbinafine was found to be the most effective antifungal drug and fluconazole was the least effective, in vitro. AFLP analysis revealed three genotypes of M. canis with 15 sub-clusters showing ≥ 90 % similarity and 7 sub-clusters exhibiting 100 % similarity. However, the phenotypic characters cannot be attributed based on the AFLP profiles.

Isolation and characterization of vB_SenS_Ib_psk2 bacteriophage against drug-resistant Salmonella enterica serovar Kentucky.

Salmonella enterica serovar Kentucky is one of the food-borne zoonotic pathogens which is isolated in high frequency from poultry meat in the recent decades and is known for its multidrug resistance. The current study was aimed to isolate and characterize a bacteriophage against S. enterica serovar Kentucky isolate, 5925, which showed resistance to at least seven antibiotics and to study its efficiency to decontaminate S. Kentucky from chicken skin. The bacteriophage against S. enterica serovar Kentucky was isolated and was named vB_SenS_Ib_psk2 representing the place, source, and host. Electron microscopy revealed that the phage possesses isometric head and contractile tail, indicative of Siphoviridae family. Molecular detection of major capsid protein E gene yielded 511 bp, and NCBI blast analysis revealed that the phage belonged to the genus chivirus. The optimum temperature and pH for phage survival and multiplication were found to be - 20 to 42 °C and 6-10, respectively. One-step growth curve experiment of vB_SenS_Ib_psk2 revealed a latent period of 20 min and burst size of 253 phages/bacterial cell. The host susceptibility studies revealed that 83% of MDR isolates of S. enterica were susceptible to vB_SenS_Ib_psk2. Artificial spiking studies on chicken skin revealed that high multiplicity of infection (MOI) of phages of 106 pfu/mL is required for significant reduction (p ≤ 0.01) of bacterial concentration (0.14 ± 0.04) after 24-h incubation at 8 °C compared to group 1 (2.55 ± 0.89 cfu/mL).

Dermatophytosis caused by Nannizzia nana (Microsporum nanum): a comprehensive review on a novel pathogen.

Keratinophilic fungi are mostly soil-inhabiting organisms with occasional infections in humans and animals. Even though most dermatophytes are host-adapted, cross-species infections are common by zoophilic and geophilic dermatophytes. N. nana is considered an etiological agent of ringworm in pigs but has also been isolated from other animals, including humans. However, it also possesses many characteristics of geophilic dermatophytes including the ability to grow in soil. N. nana produces characteristic pear-shaped macroconidia and usually exhibits an ectothrix pattern of hair infection. It has been isolated from dermatitis lesions as well as from soil. N. nana infections in pigs are not of much concern as far as economy or health is concerned. But it has been associated with onychomycosis and gonathritis in humans, which are significant in human medicine. The shift in the predominance of dermatophytes in humans and the ability to evolve into a potential tinea pathogen necessitates more understanding of the physiology and genetics of N. nana. In this review, we have attempted a detailed analysis of the studies about N. nana, emphasizing growth and cultural characters, physiology, isolation, infection in humans and animals, molecular characterization and antifungal susceptibility.

Molecular epidemiology of Trichophyton infections among canines from Northern India.

Dermatophytes are keratinophilic fungi that cause skin infections in both humans and animals. Recently, the incidence rates of fungal infections associated with Trichophyton spp. have been considered endemic in many locations. The aim of this study was to isolate and characterize Trichophyton spp. from canines and felines. In the present study, screened 442 canine (n = 386) and feline (n = 56) samples for dermatophytes. Among all the samples, ten isolates were identified as Trichophyton spp. based on micro-morphological features. For comparative analysis, we included three human strains of Trichophyton mentagrophytes complex. In vitro susceptibility of antifungal drugs indicated the highest sensitivity except for fluconazole. The canine and human strains were genetically characterized by sequencing three genes: the internal transcribed spacer region of rDNA, translation elongation factor 1- gene, and beta-tubulin. Based on sequence homology and phylogenetic analysis, the ten canine strains belonged to four different species/ genotypes such as T. mentagrophytes genotype VIII (T. indotineae) (n = 5), T. interdigitale (n = 2), T. simii (n = 2) and T. quinckeanum (n = 1). The three human strains used for comparative analysis were identified as T. mentagrophytes genotype VIII (n = 2) and T. benhamiae (n = 1). The study hence indicates that the T. mentagrophytes genotype VIII, considered as an endemic and emerging human pathogenic clone in India, is also the prevalent in animals.

A novel bicistronic DNA vaccine with enhanced protective immune response against Bacillus anthracis through DNA prime-protein boost vaccination approach.

Anthrax, by Bacillus anthracis, remains a dreadful fatal hazard worldwide. The currently used anthrax vaccines are plagued by numerous issues that limit their widespread use. As an immunization approach targeting both extracellular antigens and toxins of B. anthracis may achieve better sterile immunity, the present investigation designed a bicistronic secretory anti-anthrax DNA vaccine targeting immune response against toxin and cells. The efficacy of the vaccine was compared with monocistronic DNA vaccines and the currently used anthrax vaccine. For this, mice were immunized with the developed vaccine containing pag (encoding protective antigen to block toxin) and eag genes (encoding EA1 to target cells) of B. anthracis through DNA-prime/Protein-boost (D/P) and DNA prime/DNA-boost (D/D) approaches. There was a >2 and > 5 fold increase in specific antibody level by D/D and D/P approaches respectively, on 42nd days post-immunization (dpi). Serum cytokine profiling showed that both Th1 and Th2 immune responses were elicited, with more Th2 responses in D/P strategy. More importantly, challenge with 100 times LD50 of B. anthracis at 42nd dpi exhibited maximum cumulative survival (83.33 %) by bicistronic D/P approach. Remarkably, immunization with EA1 delayed mortality onset in infection. The study forms the first report on complement-dependent bactericidal activity of antiEA1 antibodies. In short, co-immunization of PA and EA1 through the developed bicistronic DNA vaccine would be an effective immunization approach in anthrax vaccination. Further, D/P strategy could enhance vaccine-induced immunity against B. anthracis. Altogether, the study generates certain critical insights having direct applications in next-generation vaccine development against anthrax.

Development of a visible loop mediated isothermal amplification assay for rapid detection of Bacillus anthracis.

Distressing effects on animal and human health with lethal progression, being used as bioweapon and shared features with non-pathogenic bacteria demands sensitive, specific, safe, cost effective and rapid detection methods for anthrax causing organisms. Conventional microbiology based diagnostics for anthrax are time consuming and need sophisticated equipment, while molecular diagnostics require less time and labor. The Loop mediated isothermal amplification assay (LAMP) is rapid, sensitive and specific assay and requires no specialized equipment. In the present study, we developed a LAMP assay for rapid as well as specific detection of Bacillus anthracis. The optimized assay produced positive results with the Sterne strain and one field isolate of B. anthracis and, negative results with other bacteria of the same and different genera within 2 h. Sensitivity was 500 fg of total DNA of B. anthracis, which was 100 times more sensitive than conventional PCR. The present study also demonstrated that the simple method of total DNA extraction by repeated boiling and freezing will not adversely affect the LAMP results. In conclusion, the optimized LAMP assay is a promising tool for the specific, sensitive, less time-consuming diagnosis for anthrax causing bacteria and also, for detecting the virulence of suspected B. anthracis cultures.

Rapid visual isothermal nucleic acid-based detection assay of Brucella species by polymerase spiral reaction.

AIM: The aim of this study was to develop polymerase spiral reaction (PSR) for rapid, sensitive and specific detection of Brucella sp. METHODS AND RESULTS: Polymerase spiral reaction assay was developed using specifically designed primers targeting the conserved multicopy IS711 gene of Brucella sp. The assay could be performed within 60 min at an isothermal temperature of 64°C. The lower limit of detection of PSR was 11·8 fg and conventional PCR was 1·18 pg of Brucella abortus genomic DNA. Thus, PSR was found to be 100-fold more sensitive than conventional PCR and was comparable to real-time PCR. The specificity of PSR was tested with other non-Brucella bacteria and also with some bacterial and viral pathogens causing abortions. The assay was found to be specific as it did not detect any putative pathogens other than Brucella sp. Fifty-six clinical samples suspected for brucellosis (aborted fetal stomach content) were screened with PSR to validate the applicability of the test to detect Brucella DNA. The same samples were also screened with conventional PCR and real-time PCR. Of 56 samples, 25 samples were found to be positive with both PSR as well as real-time PCR, whereas only 20 samples were found positive with conventional PCR. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study indicated that the PSR assay is a simple, rapid, sensitive and specific method for the detection of Brucella sp. that may improve diagnostic potential in clinical laboratories or can be used at diagnostic laboratories with minimal infrastructure. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The PSR assay, because of its simplicity and low cost, can be preferred to other molecular methods in the diagnosis of infectious diseases.

Visual Detection of Brucella spp. in Spiked Bovine Semen Using Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) Assay.

Several pathogens including Brucella spp. are shed in semen of infected bulls and can be transmitted to cows through contaminated semen during artificial insemination. The present study reports omp2a and bcsp31 gene based loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays for detection of Brucella genomic DNA in semen from infected bulls. The positive results could be interpreted visually by change in colour of reaction mixture containing hydroxyl naphthol blue (HNB) dye from violet to sky blue. LAMP assays based on omp2a and bcsp31 could detect as little as 10 and 100 fg of B. abortus S19 genomic DNA, respectively. Sensitivity of omp2a and bcsp31 LAMP assays for direct detection of organisms in bovine semen was 2.28 × 10(1) CFU and 2.28 × 10(2) CFU of B. abortus S19 in spiked bovine semen, respectively. The omp2a LAMP assay was found equally sensitive to TaqMan probe based real-time PCR and 100 times more sensitive than conventional PCR in identifying Brucella in spiked semen. The diagnostic applicability of the omp2a LAMP assay was evaluated with seventy-nine bovine semen samples and results were re-evaluated through TaqMan probe based real-time PCR and conventional PCR. Taken together, the omp2a LAMP assay is easy to perform, rapid and sensitive in diagnosis of Brucella spp. in bovine semen.

Construction of infectious cDNA clone derived from a classical swine fever virus field isolate in BAC vector using in vitro overlap extension PCR and recombination.

To develop reverse genetics system of RNA viruses, cloning of full-length viral genome is required which is often challenging due to many steps involved. In this study, we report cloning of full-length cDNA from an Indian field isolate (CSFV/IVRI/VB-131) of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) using in vitro overlap extension PCR and recombination which drastically reduced the number of cloning steps. The genome of CSFV was amplified in six overlapping cDNA fragments, linked by overlap extension PCR and cloned in a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) vector using in vitro recombination method to generate full-length cDNA clone. The full-length CSFV cDNA clone was found stable in E. coli Stellar and DH10B cells. The full-length RNA was transcribed in vitro using T7 RNA polymerase and transfected in PK15 cells using Neon-tip electroporator to rescue infectious CSFV. The progeny CSFV was propagated in PK15 cells and found indistinguishable from the parent virus. The expression of CSFV proteins were detected in cytoplasm of PK15 cells infected with progeny CSFV at 72 h post-infection. We concluded that the in vitro overlap extension PCR and recombination method is useful to construct stable full-length cDNA clone of RNA virus in BAC vector.

Protective immune-response of aluminium hydroxide gel adjuvanted phage lysate of Brucella abortus S19 in mice against direct virulent challenge with B. abortus 544.

The prophylactic efficacies of plain and alum adsorbed lysate were evaluated by direct virulent challenge in mice model. A recently isolated brucellaphage 'ϕLd' was used for generation of lysates. Twenty four h incubated Brucella abortus S19 broth cultures standardized to contain approximately 10(8) CFU/ml were found suitable for generation of lysates. Three lysate batches produced through separate cycles did not show any significant variation with respect to protein and polysaccharide contents, endotoxin level and phage counts, indicating that compositionally stable lysate preparations can be generated through an optimized production process. Three polypeptides of ∼16, 19 and 23 kDa could be identified as immuno-dominant antigens of the lysate which induced both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses in a dose dependent manner. Results of efficacy evaluation trial confirmed dose-dependent protective potencies of lysate preparation. The lysate with an antigenic dose of 0.52 µg protein and 60 µg CHO adsorbed on aluminium gel (0.1 percent aluminium concentration) exhibited the highest protective potency which was greater than that induced by standard S19 vaccine. Phage lysate methodology provides a very viable option through which an improved immunizing preparation with all desirable traits can be developed against brucellosis, and integrated with immunization programmes in a more efficient manner.

Complete genome sequence of an Indian field isolate of classical Swine Fever virus belonging to subgenotype 1.1.

We report the complete genome sequence of an Indian field isolate of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) belonging to predominant subgenotype 1.1 prevalent in India. This report will help in understanding the molecular diversity of CSFV strains circulating worldwide and to select and develop a suitable vaccine candidate for classical swine fever (CSF) control in India.

Development of a simple method for the rapid identification of organisms causing anthrax by coagglutination test.

A protective antigen (PA) based coagglutination test was optimized in the present study for the specific and sensitive identification of bacteria causing anthrax in a cost effective and less risky manner. The test showed 100% specificity and sensitivity up to 9 × 10(3) formalinized vegetative cells or 11 ng of PA. The optimized test also detected anthrax toxin directly from the serum as well as blood of anthrax infected animals indicating the potential application for direct diagnosis of anthrax under field conditions.

Development of a simple and rapid method for the specific identification of organism causing anthrax by slide latex agglutination.

UNLABELLED: A specific latex agglutination test (LAT) based on anti-PA (protective antigen) antibodies having detection limit of 5 × 10(4) formalin treated Bacillus anthracis cells or 110 ng of PA was optimized in this study. The optimized LAT could detect anthrax toxin in whole blood as well as in serum from the animal models of anthrax infection. The protocol is a simple and promising method for the specific detection of bacteria causing anthrax under routine laboratory, as well as in field, conditions without any special equipments or expertise. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The article presents the first report of a latex agglutination test for the specific identification of the cultures of bacteria causing anthrax. As the test is targeting one of anthrax toxic protein (PA), this can also be used to determine virulence of suspected organisms. At the same time, the same LAT can be used directly on whole blood or sera samples under field conditions for the specific diagnosis of anthrax.

Protection of mice against lethal rabies virus challenge using short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) delivered through lentiviral vector.

The antiviral potential of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) targeting rabies virus (RV) polymerase (L) and nucleoprotein (N) genes delivered through lentiviral vector was investigated. For in vitro evaluation, siRNAs expressing BHK-21 cell lines (BHK-L and BHK-N) were developed using transduction with Lenti-L and Lenti-N lentiviruses encoding siRNAs against RV-L and N genes, respectively. When these cell lines were challenged in vitro with RV Pasteur virus-11 (PV-11) strain, there was reduction in number of RV-specific foci and target gene transcripts indicating inhibitory effect on RV multiplication. For in vivo evaluation, mice were treated intracerebrally with lentiviruses and challenged with 20 LD50 of RV challenge virus standard-11 (CVS-11) strain by intramuscular route in masseter muscle. Five out of eight mice treated with Lenti-N survived indicating 62.5 % protection. The control and Lenti-L-treated mice died within 7-10 days indicating lethal nature of challenge virus and no protection. These results demonstrated that siRNA targeting RV-N could not only inhibit RV multiplication, but also conferred protection in mice against lethal RV challenge. These findings have implication on therapeutic use of siRNA targeting RV-N against RV infection.

Evaluation of single and dual siRNAs targeting rabies virus glycoprotein and nucleoprotein genes for inhibition of virus multiplication in vitro.

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) targeting rabies virus (RV) glycoprotein (G) and nucleoprotein (N) genes were evaluated as antiviral agents against rabies virus in vitro in BHK-21 cells. To select effective siRNAs targeting RV-G, a plasmid-based transient co-transfection approach was used. In this, siRNAs were expressed as short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs), and their ability to inhibit RV-G gene expression was evaluated in cells transfected with a plasmid expressing RV-G. The nine different siRNAs designed to target RV-G exhibited varying degrees of knockdown of RV-G gene expression. One siRNA (si-G7) with considerable effect in knockdown of RV-G expression also demonstrated significant inhibition of RV multiplication in BHK-21 cells after in vitro challenge with the RV Pasteur virus-11 (PV-11) strain. A decrease in the number of fluorescent foci in siRNA-treated cells and a reduction (86.8 %) in the release of RV into infected cell culture supernatant indicated the anti-rabies potential of siRNA. Similarly, treatment with one siRNA targeting RV-N resulted in a decrease in the number of fluorescent foci and a reduction (85.9 %) in the release of RV. As a dual gene silencing approach where siRNAs targeting RV-G and RV-N genes were expressed from single construct, the anti-rabies-virus effect was observed as an 87.4 % reduction in the release of RV. These results demonstrate that siRNAs targeting RV-G and N, both in single and dual form, have potential as antiviral agent against rabies.

Intracerebral delivery of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) using adenoviral vector protects mice against lethal peripheral rabies challenge.

To investigate the potential of RNA interference (RNAi) as antiviral agent against rabies, two small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) targeting rabies virus (RABV) nucleoprotein (N) and polymerase (L) genes were designed and evaluated. Both siRNAs knockdown or silenced the target RABV genes as evaluated in a plasmid based transient expression model. For efficient delivery, adenoviruses expressing the siRNAs were constructed and antiviral potential of the delivered siRNAs was investigated in BHK-21 cells. When cells treated with adenoviruses expressing siRNAs were challenged with RABV, there was 88.35±2.4% and 41.52±9.3% reduction in RABV multiplication in infected cells with siRNAs targeting RABV-N and L genes, respectively. Relative quantification of RABV transcripts using real-time PCR revealed knockdown of both RABV-N and L gene transcripts, however, significant reduction was observed only with adenovirus expressing siRNA against RABV-N. When mice treated intracerebrally with adenoviruses expressing siRNAs were challenged peripherally with lethal RABV by the intramuscular route in masseter muscle, there was 66.6% and 33.3% protection with adenoviruses expressing siRNAs against RABV-N and L genes, respectively. These results demonstrated that adenovirus expressing siRNA against RABV-N efficiently inhibited the RABV multiplication both, in vitro and in vivo and conferred significant protection against lethal RABV challenge. This supported the hypothesis that RNAi, based on siRNA targeting RABV-N gene can prevent RABV infection and holds the potential of RNAi as an approach to prevent rabies infection.

Inhibition of rabies virus multiplication by siRNA delivered through adenoviral vector in vitro in BHK-21 cells and in vivo in mice.

To evaluate antiviral potential of adenoviral vector-delivered small interfering RNA (siRNA) against rabies, recombinant, replication-defective adenoviral vectors (rAdV) encoding siRNAs targeting rabies virus (RV) polymerase (L) and nucleoprotein (N) genes were developed. The siRNAs were delivered as small hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) through these vectors. Treatment of BHK-21 cells with rAdV expressing siRNA targeting L gene (rAdV-L) and N gene (rAdV-N) (100 MOI) and their subsequent infection with RV (0.001 MOI, RV PV-11), reduced RV fluorescent foci by 48.2% (mean±SEM; 48.17±0.6540, N=6) and 41.8% (mean±SEM; 41.83±0.3073, N=6), respectively, with respect to that of BHK-21 cells treated with rAdV expressing negative control siRNA (rAdV-Neg) indicating inhibition of multiplication of RV in BHK-21 cells in response to adenoviral vector mediated siRNA delivery. Also, the similar treatment of BHK-21 cells with rAdV-L and rAdV-N and similar subsequent infection of them with RV resulted in reduction in RV mRNA transcript levels for their respective targets (RV L gene for rAdV-L and N gene for rAdV-N). mRNA transcript level for RV L gene was reduced by 17.88-fold (mean±SEM; 17.88±0.06638, N=6) in cells treated with rAdV-L and that for RV N gene was reduced by 5.7-fold (mean±SEM; 5.7±0.04472, N=6), in cells treated with rAdV-N, in comparison with that in cells treated with rAdV-Neg, as analyzed by using real-time PCR. These in vitro studies showed that between these two, adenoviral vector mediated delivery of siRNA targeting RV L gene was comparatively more effective in inhibiting RV multiplication in BHK-21 cells than that of siRNA targeting RV N gene (p<0.0001). Localized treatment (intramuscular injection in masseter muscle) of mice with 10(7) plaque forming units of either rAdV-L or rAdV-N and subsequent lethal RV infection (15-20LD(50) of CVS-11) at the same site, through the same route, although resulted in 50% protection (3 out of 6 mice survived) against lethal rabies, the survival patterns for groups of mice treated with either rAdV-L or rAdV-N and that treated with rAdV-Neg did not differ significantly (p=0.5234). These results indicated that adenoviral vector mediated siRNA delivery, in vitro in BHK-21 cells inhibited RV multiplication in vitro in BHK-21 cells; siRNA targeting RV L gene used in this study was comparatively more efficient in doing this than that targeting RV N gene used in this study; in vivo in mice inhibited RV multiplication in mice and imparted partial protection against lethal rabies and so it may have a potential to be used as an alternative antiviral approach against rabies, although further study is required to establish its efficacy for this purpose.

Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) microspheres: a potent oral delivery system to elicit systemic immune response against inactivated rabies virus.

Rabies is an endemic, fatal zoonotic disease in the developing countries. Oral vaccination strategies are suitable for rabies control in developing countries. Studies were performed to investigate the suitability of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLG) microspheres as an oral delivery system for beta-propiolactone inactivated concentrated rabies virus (CRV). Immune responses induced by encapsulated (PLG+CRV) and un-encapsulated inactivated rabies virus after oral and intraperitoneal route administrations were compared. The anti-rabies virus IgG antibody titer, virus neutralizing antibody (VNA) titers obtained by mouse neutralization test (MNT) and IgG2a and IgG1 titers of mice group immunized orally with PLG+CRV showed significantly (p<0.001) higher response than the group immunized orally with un-encapsulated CRV. There was no significant difference (p>0.05) between groups inoculated by intraperitoneal route. The stimulation index (SI) obtained by lymphoproliferation assay of PLG+CRV oral group also showed significantly (p<0.001) higher response than the group immunized orally with un-encapsulated CRV, suggesting that oral immunization activates Th1-mediated cellular immunity. Immunized mice of all experimental groups were challenged intracerebrally with a lethal dose of virulent rabies virus Challenge Virus Standard (CVS). The survival rates of mice immunized orally with PLG+CRV and CRV alone were 75% and 50%, respectively, whereas intraperitoneally immunized groups showed 100% protection. The overall results of humoral, cellular immune response and survival rates of mice immunized orally with PLG+CRV were significantly (p<0.001) higher than those of mice immunized orally with CRV alone. These data suggest that the PLG encapsulated inactivated rabies virus can be used for oral immunization against rabies.