Giant seaperch iridovirus infection upregulates Bas and Bak expression, leading to apoptotic death of fish cells.

The giant seaperch iridovirus (GSIV) induces host cell apoptosis by a poorly-understood process. In this study, GSIV is shown to upregulate the pro-apoptotic death genes Bax and Bak at the middle replication stage, and factors in the grouper fin cell line (GF-1) are shown to modulate this process. Studying the mechanism of cell death, we found that upregulated, de novo-synthesized Bax and Bak proteins formed heterodimers. This up-regulation process correlated with mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) loss, increased caspase-3 activity, and increased apoptotic cell death. All effects were diminished by treatment of infected GF-1 cells with the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide. Interestingly, overexpression of the anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-xL also diminished GSIV-induced mitochondria-mediated cell death, increasing host cell viability and decreasing MMP loss at the early replication stage. Our data suggest that GSIV induces GF-1 apoptotic cell death through up-regulation of the pro-apoptotic genes Bax and Bak, which are regulated by Bcl-xL overexpression on mitochondria in GF-1 cells.

Elevated temperature inhibits recruitment of transferrin-positive vesicles and induces iron-deficiency genes expression in Aiptasia pulchella host-harbored Symbiodinium.

Coral bleaching is the consequence of disruption of the mutualistic Cnidaria-dinoflagellate association. Elevated seawater temperatures have been proposed as the most likely cause of coral bleaching whose severity is enhanced by a limitation in the bioavailability of iron. Iron is required by numerous organisms including the zooxanthellae residing inside the symbiosome of cnidarian cells. However, the knowledge of how symbiotic zooxanthellae obtain iron from the host cells and how elevated water temperature affects the association is very limited. Since cellular iron acquisition is known to be mediated through transferrin receptor-mediated endocytosis, a vesicular trafficking pathway specifically regulated by Rab4 and Rab5, we set out to examine the roles of these key proteins in the iron acquisition by the symbiotic Symbiodinium. Thus, we hypothesized that the iron recruitments into symbiotic zooxanthellae-housed symbiosomes may be dependent on rab4/rab5-mediated fusion with vesicles containing iron-bound transferrins and will be retarded under elevated temperature. In this study, we cloned a novel monolobal transferrin (ApTF) gene from the tropical sea anemone Aiptasia pulchella and confirmed that the association of ApTF with A. pulchella Rab4 (ApRab4) or A. pulchella Rab5 (ApRab5) vesicles is inhibited by elevated temperature through immunofluorescence analysis. We confirmed the iron-deficient phenomenon by demonstrating the induced overexpression of iron-deficiency-responsive genes, flavodoxin and high-affinity iron permease 1, and reduced intracellular iron concentration in zooxanthellae under desferrioxamine B (iron chelator) and high temperature treatment. In conclusion, our data are consistent with algal iron deficiency being a contributing factor for the thermal stress-induced bleaching of symbiotic cnidarians.

Testosterone improves the transition of primary oocytes in artificial maturation eels (Anguilla japonica) by altering ovarian PTEN expression.

In mammals, androgens appear to enhance the development of primary ovarian follicles, but PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinases) pathway is well recognized as one of the critical pathways in early follicular development. Roles of the PI3K were revealed by deletion of PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog on chromosome 10). PTEN is demonstrated to play an important role in the early stage of follicle development. In the Japanese eel, two forms of PTEN have been cloned, but what their functions on the development of early ovarian follicles are still not clear. The natural blockage and inducible of ovarian development was a benefit to address this question in the eel. Testosterone (T) shows to ameliorate the early ovarian development in the eel. The aims of this study were to elucidate the two forms of PTEN by cellular and physiological criteria and to study the effects of T on the ovarian PTEN production in the exogenous pituitary extracts-stimulated eel. Our results suggested that two forms of PTEN are existing in the Japanese eel, and eel ovarian development corresponded to the decrease in ovarian PTEN expression, vice versa. In addition, the supplement of T on eel early ovarian development can be attributed to its PTEN inhibitor role.

Zebrafish anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-xL can prevent aquatic birnavirus-induced cell death in fish cells without affecting expression of viral proteins.

The aquatic birnavirus induces mitochondria-mediated cell death in fish; however, the molecular mechanism remains unknown. In the present study, we demonstrated that aquatic birnavirus-induced mitochondria-mediated cell death is regulated by the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member, zfBcl-xL, which is anti-apoptotic and enhances host cell viability. First, CHSE-214 cells carrying EGFP-zfBcl-xL fused genes were selected, established in culture, and used to examine the involvement of zfBcl-xL in host cell protection from the effects of viral infection. EGFP-zfBcl-xL was found to prevent infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV)-induced phosphatidylserine exposure up to 40% at 12 h and 24 h post-infection (p.i.), block IPNV-induced loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), and enhance host viability at the middle and late replication stages. In addition, zfBcl-xL overexpression prevented IPNV-induced caspase-9 activation up to 25% and 85% at the middle (12 h p.i.) and late (24 h p.i.) replication stages without affecting expression of viral proteins such as VP3 (as a viral death protein) protein. In the present study, we demonstrated that aquatic birnavirus-induced cell death is prevented by the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member, zfBcl-xL, which enhances host cell viability through blockage of mitochondrial disruption and caspase-9 activation.

Cloning and characterization of ApRab4, a recycling Rab protein of Aiptasia pulchella, and its implication in the symbiosome biogenesis.

The biogenesis of Symbiodinium symbiosome in the host cells of the sea anemone, Aiptasia pulchella, involves retention of ApRab5 on and exclusion of ApRab11 from the organelle. One predicted consequence of this differential Rab association is the constant membrane fusion of symbiosomes with endocytic vesicles in the absence of parallel membrane retrieval and the subsequent formation of spacious symbiosomes, which nevertheless, contradicts the common perception. To solve this discrepancy, we determined whether membrane fusion occurs between symbiosomes and endocytic vesicles, and whether ApRab11-independent recycling is involved in symbiosome biogenesis. By using the biotin-avidin detection system, we found evidence for symbiosome-endocytic vesicle fusion. Cloning and characterization of ApRab4, an A. pulchella homolog of Rab4, showed that ApRab4 is associated with both the early endocytic and the perinuclear recycling compartments, and its normal function is required for the organization of the recycling compartments. Immunostaining localized ApRab4 to the symbiosome membrane, partially overlapping with ApRab5-decorated microdomains. Significantly, a treatment that impaired Symbiodinium photosynthesis also abolished symbiosome association of ApRab4. Furthermore, ApRab4 was quickly recruited to newly formed phagosomes, but prolonged association only occurred in those harboring live zooxanthelllae. We propose that ApRab4 retention on the symbiosome is an essential part of the mechanism for the biogenesis of Symbiodinium symbiosome.

Differential expression of zebrafish gpia and gpib during development.

Glucose 6-phosphate isomerase (GPI), alternatively named phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI), autocrine motility factor (AMF) or neuroleukin (NLK), is a sugar metabolic enzyme catalyzing the interconversion between glucose-6-phosphate and fructose-6-phosphate. When secreted out of the cell, it can induce cellular activities of neighboring cells. As a prerequisite to study the function of gpi during development, we analyzed the sequences and expression patterns of zebrafish gpia and gpib. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that gpia and gpib are two paralogs resulting from the teleost fish-specific whole genome duplication. In adult zebrafish, gpia is widely expressed in many tissues, whereas gpib is only expressed in heart, muscle, and at lower abundance in eye. During embryonic development, gpia mRNA is maternally deposited in cleavage and blastula embryos, but gpib mRNA is not. Zygotic expression of gpia mRNA initiates in the primitive gut of segmentation embryos, and its expression increases in eye, cerebellum, hindbrain, heart, pharyngeal arches, pectoral fin buds and gut of hatching embryos at 60hpf (hours post fertilization). At 72hpf, gpia mRNA is strongly expressed in the retina of eye, tectum, hindbrain, and gut derivatives such as liver, intestine and circular smooth muscle layer of the swim bladder. By contrast, gpib is expressed in the yolk syncytial nuclei of late blastula, gastrula and segmentation embryos. Somitic gpib expression initiates in late pharyngula embryos, and it is most prominent in the muscle of hatching embryos around 48-60hpf. Transcript of gpib is also expressed in the pectoral fins and portions of the pharyngeal arches in the hatching period. The differential expression of gpia and gpib in zebrafish suggests partition or divergence of gpi functions between the two duplicates.

ApRab3, a biosynthetic Rab protein, accumulates on the maturing phagosomes and symbiosomes in the tropical sea anemone, Aiptasia pulchella.

Symbiosome biogenesis and function are central to the endosymbiotic interaction between symbiotic dinoflagellates and their host cnidarians. To understand these important organelles, we have been conducting studies to identify and characterize symbiosome-associated proteins of the Rab family, key regulatory components of vesicular trafficking and membrane fusion in eukaryotic cells. Our prior studies have implicated three endocytic Rab proteins in the regulation of symbiosome biogenesis. Here, we show that ApRab3 is a new member of the Rab3 subfamily, associating with symbiosomes and accumulating on the maturing phagosomes in the A. pulchella digestive cells. ApRab3 is 78% identical to human Rab3C, and contains all Rab 3-specific signature motifs. EGFP-ApRab3-labeled vesicular structures tended to either align along the cell peripheral, or aggregate at one side of the nucleus. ApRab3 specifically co-distributed with the TGN marker, WGA, but not other organelle-specific markers tested. Immunofluorescence staining with a specific peptide antibody showed similar results. Significantly, an expression of a constitutively active mutant caused the enlargement and random dispersion of EGFP-ApRab3-decorated compartments in PC12 cells. Together, these data suggest that ApRab3 is a new member of the Rab3 subfamily, participating in the biosynthetic trafficking pathway, and symbiosome biogenesis involves an interaction with ApRab3-positive vesicles.

Zebrafish anti-apoptotic protein zfBcl-xL can block betanodavirus protein alpha-induced mitochondria-mediated secondary necrosis cell death.

Betanodavirus protein alpha induces cell apoptosis or secondary necrosis by a poorly understood process. In the present work, red spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus (RGNNV) RNA 2 was cloned and transfected into tissue culture cells (GF-1) which then underwent apoptosis or post-apoptotic necrosis. In the early apoptotic stage, progressive phosphatidylserine externalization was evident at 24h post-transfection (p.t.) by Annexin V-FLUOS staining. TUNEL assay revealed apoptotic cells at 24-72 h p.t, after which post-apoptotic necrotic cells were identified by acridine orange/ethidium bromide dual dye staining from 48 to 72 h p.t. Protein alpha induced progressive loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) which was detected in RNA2-transfected GF-1 cells at 24, 48, and 72 h p.t., which correlated with cytochrome c release, especially at 72 h p.t. To assess the effect of zfBcl-xL on cell death, RNA2-transfected cells were co-transfected with zfBcl-x(L). Co-transfection of GF-1 cells prevented loss of MMP at 24 h and 48 h p.t. and blocked initiator caspase-8 and effector caspase-3 activation at 48 h p.t. We conclude that RGNNV protein alpha induces apoptosis followed by secondary necrotic cell death through a mitochondria-mediated death pathway and activation of caspases-8 and -3.

An endothelial-cell-enriched primary culture system to study vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF A) expression in a teleost, the Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica).

A partial gene for eel (Anguilla japonica) vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been cloned and an endothelial-cell-enriched primary culture derived from rete mirabile established to study regulation of the expression of the eel VEGF gene. Cells were cultured in M199 medium containing 0.1% fetal calf serum (FCS) and serum-free M199 medium for long-and short-term experiments, respectively. Cells were separately treated with cobalt ions (Co2+), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), and estradiol (E2), which have been demonstrated to stimulate mammalian VEGF A expression, followed by quantification of the VEGF mRNA levels by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Our results show that: (1) the deduced eel VEGF protein encoded by the cloned gene is about 130 amino acids in length, and is closely related to a zebrafish (Danio rerio) VEGF A; (2) the endothelial-cell-enriched rete mirabile primary culture containing mainly (over 70%) the capillary endothelial cells; (3) the expression levels of the eel VEGF transcript were increased by Co2+, bFGF, and E2 treatments in a dose-and time-dependent manner. Our data demonstrate that an eel partial VEGF gene has been cloned and its regulation of expression in endothelial-cell-enriched rete mirabile cell culture is similar to that in higher vertebrates.

ApRab11, a cnidarian homologue of the recycling regulatory protein Rab11, is involved in the establishment and maintenance of the Aiptasia-Symbiodinium endosymbiosis.

Endosymbiotic association of the Symbiodinium dinoflagellates (zooxanthellae) with their cnidarian host cells involves an alteration in the development of the alga-enclosing phagosomes. To uncover its molecular basis, we previously investigated and established that the intracellular persistence of the zooxanthella-containing phagosomes involves specific alga-mediated interference with the expression of ApRab5 and ApRab7, two key endocytic regulatory Rab proteins, which results in the selective retention of the former on and exclusion of the later from the organelles. Here we examined the role of ApRab11, a cnidarian homologue of the key endocytic recycling regulator, Rab11, in the Aiptasia-Symbiodinium endosymbiosis. ApRab11 protein shared 88% overall sequence identity with human Rab11A and contained all Rab-specific signature motifs. Co-localization and mutagenesis studies showed that EGFP-tagged ApRab11 was predominantly associated with recycling endosomes and functioned in the recycling of internalized transferrin. In phagocytosis of latex beads, ApRab11 was quickly recruited to and later gradually removed from the developing phagosomes. Significantly, although ApRab11 immunoreactivity was rapidly detected on the phagosomes containing either newly internalized, heat-killed zooxanthellae, or resident zooxanthellae briefly treated with the photosynthesis inhibitor DCMU, it was rarely observed in the majority of phagosomes containing either newly internalized live, or healthy resident, zooxanthellae. It was concluded that through active exclusion of ApRab11 from the phagosomes in which they reside, zooxanthellae interfere with the normal recycling process required for efficient phagosome maturation, and thereby, secure their intracellular persistence, and consequently their endosymbiotic relationship with their cnidarian hosts.

Molecular cloning of Rab5 (ApRab5) in Aiptasia pulchella and its retention in phagosomes harboring live zooxanthellae.

The intracellular association of symbiotic dinoflagellates (zooxanthellae) with marine cnidarians is the very foundation of the highly productive and diversified coral reef ecosystems. To reveal its underlying molecular mechanisms, we previously cloned ApRab7, a Rab7 homologue of the sea anemone Aiptasia pulchella, and demonstrated its selective exclusion from phagosomes containing live zooxanthellae, but not from those containing either dead or photosynthesis-impaired algae. In this study, Rab5 was characterized, due to its key role in endocytosis and phagocytosis acting upstream of Rab7. The Aiptasia Rab5 homologue (ApRab5) is 79.5% identical to human Rab5C and contains all Rab-specific signature motifs. Subcellular fractionation study showed that ApRab5 is mainly cytosolic. EGFP reporter and phagocytosis studies indicated that membrane-associated ApRab5 is present in early endocytic and phagocytic compartments, and is able to promote their fusion. Significantly, immunofluorescence study showed that the majority of phagosomes containing either resident or newly internalized live zooxanthellae were labeled with ApRab5, while those containing either heat-killed or photosynthesis-impaired algae were mostly negative for ApRab5 staining whereas the opposite was observed for ApRab7. We propose that active phagosomal retention of ApRab5 is part of the mechanisms employed by live zooxanthellae to: (1) persist inside their host cells and (2) exclude ApRab7 from their phagosomes, thereby, establishing and/or maintaining an endosymbiotic relationship with their cnidarian hosts.

Comparative gene expression in the symbiotic and aposymbiotic Aiptasia pulchella by expressed sequence tag analysis.

Intracellular symbiotic relationships are prevalent between cnidarians, such as corals and sea anemones, and the photosynthetic dinoflagellate symbionts. However, there is little understanding about how the genes express when the symbiotic relationship is set up. To characterize genes involved in this association, the endosymbiosis between sea anemone, Aiptasia pulchella, and dinoflagellate zooxanthellae, Symbiodinium spp., was employed as a model. Two complementary DNA (cDNA) libraries were constructed from RNA isolated from symbiotic and aposymbiotic A. pulchella. Using single-pass sequencing of cDNA clones, a total of 870 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) clones were generated from the two libraries: 474 from symbiotic animal and 396 from aposymbiotic animal. The initial ESTs consisted of 143 clusters and 231 singletons. A BLASTX search revealed that 147 unique genes had similarities with protein sequences available from databases; 120 of these clones were categorized according to their putative function. However, many ESTs could not assign functionally. The putative roles of some of the identified genes relative to endosymbiosis were discussed. This is the first report of the use of EST analysis to examine the gene expression in symbiotic and aposymbiotic states of the cnidarians. The systematic analysis of EST from this study provides a useful database for future investigations of the molecular mechanisms involved in algal-cnidarian symbiosis.

Cloning and characterization of the first cnidarian ADP-ribosylation factor, and its involvement in the Aiptasia-Symbiodinum endosymbiosis.

Marine cnidarian-microalgal endosymbiosis is a form of intracellular association that contributes greatly to the high primary productivity of reefs; however, little is known about its molecular mechanisms. Since the ADP-ribosylation factor (ARF) family proteins are key regulators of host intracellular vesicle transport systems, which are critical to many endosymbiotic interactions, we set out to clone and characterize ARF proteins in the symbiotic sea anemone Aiptasia pulchella. Experiments indicated that at least 3 ARF protein classes (class I, class II and class III) were present and expressed as a single messenger RNA species in Aiptasia, with highest mRNA expression levels for apARF1, medium for apARF5, and lowest for apARF6. Quantitative analysis revealed a great reduction at both the RNA and the protein levels in apARF1, but not apARF5 and apARF6, in the symbiotic animals. The apARF1 protein was highly homologous in sequence to other known ARF1 proteins and displayed a Golgi-like localization pattern. Overall, our study identified apARF1 as a potential negative regulator of Aiptaisia-microalgal endosymbiosis.

Briarane derivatives from the gorgonian coral Junceella fragilis.

A new trihydroxyl briarane-type diterpenoid, junceellolide H (1), along with two known compounds, praelolide (2) and junceellin (3), have been isolated from the gorgonian coral Junceella fragilis. The structure, including the relative configuration of the new diterpenoid 1, was elucidated by extensive spectroscopic methods.

Molecular identification of Rab7 (ApRab7) in Aiptasia pulchella and its exclusion from phagosomes harboring zooxanthellae.

The establishment and maintenance of the intracellular association between marine cnidarians and their symbiotic microalgae is essential to the well being of coral reef ecosystems; however, little is known concerning its underlying molecular mechanisms. In light of the critical roles of the small GTPase, Rab7, as a key regulator of vesicular trafficking, we cloned and characterized the Rab7 protein in the endosymbiosis system between the sea anemone, Aiptasia pulchella and its algal symbiont, Symbiodinium spp. The Aiptasia homologue of Rab7 proteins, ApRab7 is 88% identical to human Rab7 protein and contains all Rab-specific signature motifs. Results of EGFP reporter analysis, protein fractionation, and immunocytochemistry support that ApRab7 is located in late endocytic and phagocytic compartments and is able to promote their fusion. Significantly, the majority of phagosomes containing live symbionts that either have taken long residency in, or were newly internalized by Aiptasia digestive cells did not contain detectable levels of ApRab7, while most phagosomes containing either heat-killed or photosynthesis-impaired symbionts were positive for ApRab7 staining. Overall, our data suggest that live algal symbionts persist inside their host cells by actively excluding ApRab7 from their phagosomes, and thereby, establish and/or maintain an endosymbiotic relationship with their cnidarian hosts.

Zebrafish mitotic kinesin-like protein 1 (Mklp1) functions in embryonic cytokinesis.

To understand the functions of microtubule motors in vertebrate development, we are investigating the kinesin-like proteins (KLPs) of the zebrafish, Danio rerio. Here we describe the structure, intracellular distribution, and function of zebrafish mitotic KLP1 (Mklp1). The zebrafish mklp1 gene that encodes this 867-amino acid protein maps to a region of zebrafish linkage group 18 that is syntenic with part of human chromosome 15. In zebrafish AB9 fibroblasts and in COS-7 cells, the zebrafish Mklp1 protein decorates spindle microtubules at metaphase, redistributes to the spindle midzone during anaphase, and becomes concentrated in the midbody during telophase and cytokinesis. The motor is detected consistently in interphase nuclei of COS cells and occasionally in those of AB9 cells. Nuclear targeting of Mklp1 is conferred by two basic motifs located in the COOH terminus of the motor. In cleaving zebrafish embryos, green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged Mklp1 is found in the nucleus in interphase and associates with microtubules of the spindle midbody in cytokinesis. One- or two-cell embryos injected with synthetic mRNAs encoding dominant-negative variants of GFP-Mklp1 frequently fail to complete cytokinesis during cleavage, resulting in formation of multinucleated blastomeres. Our results indicate that the zebrafish Mklp1 motor performs a critical function that is required for completion of embryonic cytokinesis.