Elevation determines the productivity of large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) cultivars in Sikkim Himalaya.

Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) is an economically important cash crop that provides a livelihood option for the rural communities in Sikkim Himalaya. However, its production has declined drastically over the past few decades due to climate change and other factors affecting the livelihood of marginal cardamom-dependent farmers in the region. Climate change causes a shift in elevational distributions of mountain species, and it is pivotal to understand its effect on yield and yield-related traits for economically important plant species like large cardamom. For this, we randomly studied 41 large cardamom cultivation sites in Sikkim (India) with elevations ranging between 975 and 2069 m asl and evaluated the yield-related traits (number of capsules per spike, capsule length, capsule width, fresh capsule weight, dry capsule weight, number of seeds per locule, fresh seed weight, and dry seed weight) in five cultivars (Dzongu Golsey, Sawney, Seremna, Ramsey, and Varlangey). We observed a significant variability (P < 0.05) for morphometric traits in each of the five cultivars cultivated in different elevations. The cultivation of low-elevation cultivars like Seremna and Dzongu Golsey (suitable in elevation < 975 m) has shifted upward to mid (975-1515 m) and high-elevation (> 1515 m), while cultivation of high-elevation Ramsey cultivar (suitable in elevation > 1515 m) has shifted downward (< 1515 m). The Dzongu Golsey, Sawney, and Seremna cultivated in mid-elevation (975-1515 m) performed better in terms of yield-related traits than the same cultivars cultivated in high-elevation (> 1515 m) and showed moderate to high negative correlation between elevation and yield-related traits, indicating the negative effect of elevation on their yield. Likewise, Ramsey and Varlangey cultivated in high elevation (> 1515 m) performed better than the one cultivated in mid-elevation (975-1515 m) and depicted moderate to high positive correlation between elevation and yield-related traits, suggesting a positive influence of elevation on their yield. Although there is an elevational shift in the cultivation of large cardamom cultivars, the elevation influences the performance of the large cardamom cultivars, and it also suggests cultivating the cultivars in their suitable elevation range for better productivity.

Maling bamboo (Yushania maling) overdominance alters forest structure and composition in Khangchendzonga landscape, Eastern Himalaya.

The Khangchendzonga Landscape (KL), a part of 'Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot', is known for its unique biodiversity assemblage. In recent years, the KL is experiencing threats to biodiversity due to the biological overdominance of native Maling bamboo (Yushania maling). In the present study, we investigated the impacts of the overdominance of Y. maling on the forest composition of Singalila National Park (SNP), Eastern Himalaya, India. Elevational habitats 2400 to 3400 m asl were sampled by laying 69 (10 m × 10 m) forest plots including 51 bamboo plots and 18 non-bamboo plots. Bamboo plots showed significantly (p < 0.05) low species richness and density in both shrub and herb layers which further manifested the low seedling density. Generalized Additive Model (GAM) estimated a significant (p < 0.0001) decline in species richness and density with increasing bamboo density in SNP. Our study projects the overdominance of Y. maling has a significant negative impact on forest structure and composition. Therefore, management of invasiveness of Y. maling is essential through its optimized removal from the protected areas and utilization in making handicrafts, paper industries etc. to create ecological and economic benefits. Further long-term studies assessing the impacts of Y. maling overdominance on forest ecosystems and soil dynamics are recommended.

Human-wildlife conflict in the roof of the world: Understanding multidimensional perspectives through a systematic review.

Human-wildlife conflicts have intensified by many folds and at different levels in recent years. The same is true in the case of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH), the roof of the world, and a region known for its wealth in biodiversity. We present a systematic literature review (SLR) using the search, appraisal, synthesis, and analysis (SALSA) framework; and for spatial and network analysis, we employed the VOSviewer software. The review-covering 240 peer-articles within a span of 27 years (from 1982 to 2019)-revealed that in the last decade, there was a 57% increase in publications but with a disproportionate geographical and thematic focus. About 82% of the research concentrated on protected areas and large carnivores and mega herbivores played a big role in such conflicts. About 53% of the studies were based on questionnaires, and the main driver reported was habitat disturbance of animals due to land-cover change, urbanization, and increase in human population. On the management front, the studies reported the use of traditional protection techniques like guarding and fencing. Our analysis of 681 keywords revealed a prominent focus on 'human-wildlife conflict,' 'Nepal,' 'Bhutan,' 'Snow Leopard,' and 'Leopard' indicating the issue linked with these species and countries. The involvement of 640 authors from 36 countries indicates increasing interest, and Nepal and India are playing key roles in the region. As for the spatial analysis that was conducted, while it showed regional variations, there were conspicuous limitations in terms of having a transboundary focus. Thus, particular attention ought to be paid to building transboundary partnerships and improving management interventions; there is also a pressing need to understand the patterns of human-wildlife convergence, especially involving meso-mammals.

Mithun (Bos frontalis): the neglected cattle species and their significance to ethnic communities in the Eastern Himalaya - A review.

OBJECTIVE: This review consolidates the available information on the socio-economic and ecological significance of Mithun in the lives of ethnic communities in the Eastern Himalaya. METHODS: Standard guidelines were followed for the review and data collection was carried out at three stages; literature search, literature screening, and literature review and analysis. RESULTS: Records indicate a long association of Mithun with the ethnic groups. Mithun serves as a symbol of pride and local currency for barter trade in the ethnic society. Its utilities range from being used as a bride price to settling legal disputes. Several cultural festivals and local ceremonies are celebrated around this bovine. Due to its semi-wild nature, this animal also has an ecological role to conserve broad leaf sub-tropical forests. However, it remains neglected and has not received policy attention, leading to a stagnated growth. The institutions for Mithun research and development are also weak. Furthermore, the species is under threat from new diseases and habitat alteration triggered by climate change. CONCLUSION: Founded on the current state of knowledge, there is a need for institutional development, strengthening institutional linkages, and promoting regional cooperation among Mithun rearing countries for further research and development of this unique cattle.

Plant diversity of the Kangchenjunga Landscape, Eastern Himalayas.

The Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL) in the Eastern Himalayas is a transboundary complex shared by Bhutan, India, and Nepal. It forms a part of the 'Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot' and is one of the biologically richest landscapes in the Eastern Himalayas. In this paper, we use secondary information to review and consolidate the knowledge on the flora of the KL. We reviewed 215 journal articles, analysed the history of publications on the flora of the KL, their publication pattern in terms of temporal and spatial distribution and key research areas. Our review shows that the landscape has a long history of botanical research that dates back to the 1840s and progressed remarkably after the 1980s. Most of the studies have been carried out in India, followed by Nepal and Bhutan. The majority of these have been vegetation surveys, followed by research on ethnobotanical aspects and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). This paper describes the forest types and characteristic species of the KL and details the species richness, diversity and dominant families of seed plants. A total of 5198 species of seed plants belonging to 1548 genera and 216 families have been recorded from the landscape, including 3860 dicots, 1315 monocots and 23 gymnosperms. Among families, Orchidaceae is the most diversely represented family in terms of species richness. This paper also draws attention to the threatened and endemic flora of the KL, including 44 species that are threatened at national and global level and 182 species that are endemic. Finally, the paper reviews the major challenges facing the KL, the conservation efforts and practices that are currently in place and recommends systematic and comprehensive floral surveys, particularly long-term data collection and monitoring and transboundary collaboration, to address the existing knowledge gaps on floral diversity of the KL.

Floristic composition and utilization of ethnomedicinal plant species in home gardens of the Eastern Himalaya.

BACKGROUND: Home gardens are popular micro land-use system and are socioeconomically linked with people for their livelihood. In the foothill region of Eastern Himalaya, very less documentations are available on species richness of the home gardens, particularly on the ethnomedicinal plants. We assumed that the home garden owners of the study site are domesticating ethnomedicinal plants which are not easily accessible to them in the wild due to distant forest. This study was planned to explore and document the diversity and population status of ethnomedicinal plants in the home gardens along with its ethnomedicinal use. METHODS: The present study was conducted in the home gardens of Cooch Behar district of West Bengal from May 2017 to May 2018. A multidisciplinary approach like collection of plant specimen, interview with structured questionnaire for documenting the utilization pattern, and quadrat methods for population study was applied. We selected 150 study sites randomly in the village cluster. The owners of the gardens were the respondents for the household survey. The study documented diversity, population size, and medicinal uses of ethnomedicinal plant species identified by the garden owners growing or being grown in their gardens. RESULTS: A total of 260 plant species were reported, of which, 53 were utilized for different ethnomedicinal applications. These 53 species were represented by 35 families and 45 genera. Most of these ethnomedicinal species were woody perennials (37.73%). Cocus nucifera dominated the list with highest number of use followed by Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. The use value of the species varied from 0.006 to 0.53, while the fidelity value (%) ranged from 2.29 to 93.75%. The leaves of the plants were mostly used for ethnomedicinal applications (19 species) followed by fruits (12 species) and bark (9 species), and the least was the root (7 species). We documented 20 different ailments/diseases cured by using these plants. In some cases, more than one species are used to cure a disease or ailment. As many as 10 species were used to cure only stomach-related problems. Some more diseases like cough and cold and jaundice were treated using six and four species, respectively. CONCLUSION: This documented list of 260 plant species including 53 ethnomedicinal ones from the home gardens of the study area indicates that these gardens are key in maintaining diversity and source of healthcare system in agricultural dominant landscape. Documenting such ecological status and traditional applications becomes a prerequisite for developing conservation and management strategies of home gardens to be included in the mainstream conservation processes.

Diversity and use of wild and non-cultivated edible plants in the Western Himalaya.

BACKGROUND: Local people in the Himalayan region use a wide range of wild and non-cultivated edible plants (WNEPs) for food, spice, medicinal, and cultural purposes. However, their availability, use, status and contribution to livelihood security are poorly documented, and they have been generally overlooked in recent agro-biodiversity conservation and management programmes. The study aimed to investigate WNEP diversity and current status in a part of the Kailash Sacred Landscape-a transboundary landscape shared by Nepal, India and PR China-in terms of collection, use, management and conservation initiatives. METHODS: Multiple methodologies and tools were used for data collection. A series of participatory tools (45 key informant interviews, 10 focus group discussions, a crop diversity fair, direct observation of species through a transect walk and rapid market assessments) was followed by a household survey (195 respondents) and complemented by a literature review. RESULTS: The study recorded 99 WNEPs belonging to 59 families of which 96 were angiosperms, one gymnosperm and two pteridophytes. Species were used for food, spice, medicine, rituals and income generation. Thirty-five species had multiple uses, including these: 40 species were used for fruit and 31 for vegetables. WNEPs contribute significantly to daily food requirements, especially the vegetables. The use value of Dryopteris cochleata was found highest (0.98) among frequently used vegetable species. The values of informant consensus factor were found maximum for worms in the stomach (0.99) and minimum for skin disease treatment (0.67). Nearly 85% of households depended exclusively on WNEPs for at least more than a month per year. Results on the importance and use of different species, gender roles in WNEP activities and conservation approaches are presented. CONCLUSIONS: People living in the Kailash Sacred Landscape depend significantly on WNEPs, and this is especially critical in times of food shortage. The WNEPs have considerable potential as an important supplement to cultivated food crops. Farmers prioritise species with multiple use values and popular vegetables. However, there are numerous challenges and interventions needed to ensure conservation and management of species and their continued availability to support food security and local livelihoods.

Traditional use and management of NTFPs in Kangchenjunga Landscape: implications for conservation and livelihoods.

Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs), an important provisioning ecosystem services, are recognized for their contribution in rural livelihoods and forest conservation. Effective management through sustainable harvesting and market driven commercialization are two contrasting aspects that are bringing challenges in development of NTFPs sector. Identifying potential species having market value, conducting value chain analyses, and sustainable management of NTFPs need analysis of their use patterns by communities and trends at a regional scale. We analyzed use patterns, trends, and challenges in traditional use and management of NTFPs in the southern slope of Kangchenjunga Landscape, Eastern Himalaya and discussed potential implications for conservation and livelihoods. A total of 739 species of NTFPs used by the local people of Kangchenjunga Landscape were reported in the reviewed literature. Of these, the highest number of NTFPs was documented from India (377 species), followed by Nepal (363) and Bhutan (245). Though the reported species were used for 24 different purposes, medicinal and edible plants were the most frequently used NTFP categories in the landscape. Medicinal plants were used in 27 major ailment categories, with the highest number of species being used for gastro-intestinal disorders. Though the Kangchenjunga Landscape harbors many potential NTFPs, trade of NTFPs was found to be nominal indicating lack of commercialization due to limited market information. We found that the unsustainable harvesting and lack of marketing were the major constraints for sustainable management of NTFPs sector in the landscape despite of promising policy provisions. We suggest sustainable harvesting practices, value addition at local level, and marketing for promotion of NTFPs in the Kangchenjunga Landscape for income generation and livelihood improvement that subsequently contributes to conservation.