Genipin and pyrogallol: Two natural small molecules targeting the modulation of disordered proteins in Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the aggregation of disordered proteins, such as amyloid beta (Aß) and tau, leading to neurotoxicity and disease progression. Despite numerous efforts, effective inhibitors of Aß and tau aggregates have not been developed. Thus, we aimed to screen natural small molecules from crude extracts that target various pathologies and are prescribed for patients with neurological diseases. In this study, we screened 162 natural small molecules prescribed for neurological diseases and identified genipin and pyrogallol as hit compounds capable of simultaneously regulating the aggregation of Aß and tau K18. Moreover, we confirmed the dual modulatory effects of these compounds on the reduction of amyloid-mediated neurotoxicity in vitro and the disassembly of preformed Aß42 and tau K18 fibrils. Furthermore, we observed the alleviatory effects of genipin and pyrogallol against AD-related pathologies in triple transgenic AD mice. Molecular dynamics and docking simulations revealed the molecular interaction dynamics of genipin and pyrogallol with Aß42 and tau K18, providing insights into their suppression of aggregation. Our findings suggest the therapeutic potential of genipin and pyrogallol as dual modulators for the treatment of AD by inhibiting aggregation or promoting dissociation of Aß and tau.

Aß dissociation by pectolinarin may counteract against Aß-induced synaptic dysfunction and memory impairment.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a degenerative brain disorder characterised by various neurological symptoms, including memory impairment and mood disorders, associated with the abnormal accumulation of amyloid b(Aß) and tau proteins in the brain. There is still no definitive treatment available for AD, and the Aß antibody drugs, which are expected to be approved by the FDA, have many limitations. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop low-molecular-weight therapeutic agents for the management of AD. In this study, we investigated whether pectolinarin, a flavonoid, regulates Aß aggregation and Aß-induced toxicity. Pectolinarin demonstrated concentration-dependent inhibition of Aß aggregation and had the ability to break down pre-formed Aß aggregates, thereby reducing their neurotoxicity. Furthermore, pectolinarin suppressed Aß aggregates-induced reduction in long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus. Oral administration of pectolinarin in experimental animals inhibited memory impairment and LTP deficits induced by Aß injection in the hippocampus. These results indicate that pectolinarin may reduce toxic Aß species and Aß-induced memory impairments and synaptic dysfunction.

Ethyl pyruvate prevents long-term stress-induced cognitive decline and modulates Akt/GSK-3ß signaling.

Stress is an inevitable part of life and, simultaneously, a stimulus that can trigger various neuropsychiatric disorders. Therefore, proper stress management is essential for maintaining a healthy life. In this study, we investigated the suppression of stress-induced cognitive deficit by controlling changes in synaptic plasticity caused by stress and confirmed that ethyl pyruvate (EP) has such an effect. Corticosterone, a stress hormone, suppresses long-term potentiation (LTP) in mouse acute hippocampal slices. EP blocked the LTP inhibitory effect of corticosterone by regulating GSK-3ß function. Restraint stress for 2 weeks increased the anxiety levels and caused the cognitive decline in the experimental animals. Administration of EP for 14 days did not affect the increase in anxiety caused by stress but improved cognitive decline caused by stress. In addition, the decrease in neurogenesis and synaptic function deficits in the hippocampus, which cause of cognitive decline due to stress, were improved by EP administration. These effects appear via regulation of Akt/GSK-3ß signaling, as in in vitro studies. These results suggest that EP prevents stress-induced cognitive decline through the modulation of Akt/GSK-3ß-mediated synaptic regulation.

Phyllodulcin improves hippocampal long-term potentiation in 5XFAD mice.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a well-known neurodegenerative brain disease, and no curative treatment has yet been developed. The main symptoms include various brain lesions, caused by amyloid ß (Aß) aggregation, and cognitive decline. Therefore, it is believed that substances that control Aß will inhibit the onset of Alzheimer's disease and slow its progression. In this study, the effect of phyllodulcin, a major component of hydrangea, on Aß aggregation and brain pathology in an animal model of AD was studied. Phyllodulcin inhibited the aggregation of Aß and decomposed the pre-aggregated Aß in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, it inhibited the cytotoxicity of Aß aggregates. Oral administration of phyllodulcin improved Aß-induced memory impairments in normal mice, reduced Aß deposition in the hippocampus, inhibited the activation of microglia and astrocytes, and improved synaptic plasticity in 5XFAD mice. These results suggest that phyllodulcin may be a candidate for the treatment of AD.

Phenolic from apple blossom "Hongro" inhibits the expression of proteins related to melanogenesis in B16F10 melanoma cells.

This study aimed to assess apple blossom extracts as potential natural whitening agents due to their ability to inhibit melanogenesis. Ethanol extracts of apple blossom (ABE) were assessed for biological activity in the B16F10 mouse melanoma cell line. ABE toxicity was assessed by thiazolyl blue tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Levels of melanogenic enzyme expression in response to ABE supplementation were assessed by western blotting. Also assessed purified kaempferol, one of the phenolic compounds extracted from apple blossom, was evaluated using western blot analysis. The expression levels of cellular tyrosinase, microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), tyrosinase-related protein (TRP)-1, and TRP-2 proteins related to melanogenesis decreased in a dose-dependent manner with ABE treatment of cells. Using nuclear magnetic resonance, we identified kaempferol in the ABE. Treatment of cells with purified kaempferol decreased the expression levels of tyrosinase and the MITF protein to a similar degree as that observed with ABE treatment. This suggests that the efficacy of melanogenesis-related inhibition demonstrated by ABE was due to kaempferol. ABE has an inhibitive effect on melanogenic enzymes and potentially can be applied to functional foods and cosmetics having a whitening effect as a natural material.

Hyperoside improves learning and memory deficits by amyloid ß1-42 in mice through regulating synaptic calcium-permeable AMPA receptors.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common degenerative disease and is indicative of dementia. The cerebral accumulation of amyloid ß (Aß), a crucial factor in AD, initiates synaptic and cognitive dysfunction. Therefore, the elevation of synaptic and cognitive functions may help manage dementia in AD. In this study, we suggest hyperoside as a synaptic function- and memory-enhancing agent. Hyperoside enhanced learning and memory in passive avoidance and object recognition tasks. Hyperoside facilitated synaptic long-term potentiation (LTP) in acute hippocampal slices. IEM-1460, a calcium-permeable amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (CP-AMPAR) antagonist, blocked the facilitation effect of hyperoside. Hyperoside also induced N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR)-independent LTP, which was blocked by IEM-1460, suggesting the involvement of CP-AMPARs in the synaptic effects of hyperoside-mediated LTP. PKI (a PKA inhibitor) or SQ22536 (adenylyl cyclase, an AC inhibitor) blocked hyperoside-facilitated LTP and hyperoside-induced NMDAR-independent LTP. Hyperoside-enhanced learning and memory were blocked by IEM-1460, suggesting the involvement of CP-AMPARs in the effect of hyperoside on learning and memory. Finally, hyperoside ameliorated Aß-induced memory impairments in an AD mouse model. These results suggest that hyperoside enhances learning and memory, and this may be due to the effect of CP-AMPARs.

Eugenitol ameliorates memory impairments in 5XFAD mice by reducing Aß plaques and neuroinflammation.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is caused by various pathological mechanisms; therefore, it is necessary to develop drugs that simultaneously act on multiple targets. In this study, we investigated the effects of eugenitol, which has anti-amyloid ß (Aß) and anti-neuroinflammatory effects, in an AD mouse model. We found that eugenitol potently inhibited Aß plaque and oligomer formation. Moreover, eugenitol dissociated the preformed Aß plaques and reduced Aß-induced nero2a cell death. An in silico docking simulation study showed that eugenitol may interact with Aß1-42 monomers and fibrils. Eugenitol showed radical scavenging effects and potently reduced the release of proinflammatory cytokines from lipopolysaccharide-treated BV2 cells. Systemic administration of eugenitol blocked Aß aggregate-induced memory impairment in the Morris water maze test in a dose-dependent manner. In 5XFAD mice, prolonged administration of eugenitol ameliorated memory and hippocampal long-term potentiation impairment. Moreover, eugenitol significantly reduced Aß deposits and neuroinflammation in the hippocampus of 5XFAD mice. These results suggest that eugenitol, which has anti-Aß aggregation, Aß fibril dissociation, and anti-inflammatory effects, potently modulates AD-like pathologies in 5XFAD mice, and could be a promising candidate for AD therapy.

Effects of Perilla frutescens var. acuta in amyloid ß toxicity and Alzheimer's disease-like pathology in 5XFAD mice.

Although accumulation of amyloid ß (Aß) plaque is a major hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD), various pathologies have been suggested therapeutic targets. Therefore, therapies-targeting multiple pathologies would be required for effective managements of AD. Accordingly, natural products, which has multiple active ingredients, have been receiving a lot of attention. In this study, we tested whether standardized ethanol extract of leaves of Perilla frutescens var. acuta (L.) Britt. (Lamiaceae) (ELPF) could modulate various pathologies in AD using 5XFAD mice. ELPF blocked Aß aggregation and disassembled pre-formed Aß aggregates. ELPF blocked Aß aggregates-induced LTP impairment and ELPF-disassembled Aß aggregates failed to impair hippocampal LTP. Systemic administration of ELPF blocked Aß aggregates-induced memory impairment in a passive avoidance test. ELPF-disassembled Aß aggregates failed to impair passive avoidance memory. Prolonged administration of ELPF ameliorated memory impairments in 5XFAD mice. In the hippocampus of 5XFAD mice, ELPF administration significantly reduced Aß deposits and neuroinflammation. These results demonstrate that ELPF could be a promising therapeutic candidate for AD.

Hydrangea macrophylla and Thunberginol C Attenuate Stress-Induced Anxiety in Mice.

Stress is an important neurological input for successful life. However, chronic stress and stress hormones could be a cause of various neurological disorders including anxiety disorders. Therefore, there have been many efforts to find effective materials for curing stress-induced neurological disorders. In this study, we examined the effect of Hydrangea macrophylla (HM) on corticosterone-induced neurotoxicity, stress-induced anxiety in mice and suggested a possible active ingredient of HM. HM protected cortical neurons against neurotoxicity of corticosterone (CORT), a stress hormone. HM also blocked CORT-induced hippocampal synaptic deficit via regulating Akt signaling. Oral administration of HM improved chronic restraint stress-induced anxiety in Elevated Plus maze test along with reduction of plasma corticosterone and TNF-α levels. Moreover, HM reduced stress-induced neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. Thunberginol C, an active ingredient of HM, also prevented CORT-induced neuronal cell death and restraint stress-induced anxiety. Moreover, thunberginol C reduced plasma TNF-α level and neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. Collectively, HM could be a good candidate for preventing stress-induced neurological disorders and thunberginol C may be an active ingredient of HM for this purpose.

Role of extracellular signal-regulated kinase in rubrofusarin-enhanced cognitive functions and neurite outgrowth.

Memory-enhancing agents have long been required for various reasons such as for obtaining a good score in a test in the young and for retaining memory in the aged. Although many studies have found that several natural products may be good candidates for memory enhancement, there is still a need for better agents. The present study investigated whether rubrofusarin, an active ingredient in Cassiae semen, enhances learning and memory in normal mice. Passive avoidance and Morris water maze tests were performed to determine the memory-enhancing ability of rubrofusarin. To investigate synaptic function, hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) was measured. Western blotting was performed to determine protein levels. To investigate neurite outgrowth, DCX immunohistochemistry and cell culture were utilised. Rubrofusarin (1, 3, 10, 30 mg/kg) enhanced memory in passive avoidance and Morris water maze tests. Moreover, rubrofusarin ameliorated scopolamine-induced memory impairment. In the rubrofusarin-treated group, high-frequency stimulation induced higher LTP in the hippocampal Schaffer-collateral pathway compared to the control group. The rubrofusarin-treated group showed a higher number of DCX-positive immature neurons with an increase in the length of dendrites compared to the control group in the hippocampal dentate gyrus region. In vitro experiments showed that rubrofusarin facilitated neurite outgrowth in neuro2a cells through extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Finally, we found that extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) is required for rubrofusarin-induced enhancement of neurite outgrowth, learning and memory. These results demonstrate that rubrofusarin enhances learning and memory and neurite outgrowth, and these might need activation of ERK pathway.

Stability of antibody drug conjugate formulations evaluated using solid-state hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry.

Antibody drug conjugates (ADCs) have been at the forefront in cancer therapy due to their target specificity. All the FDA approved ADCs are developed in lyophilized form to minimize instability associated with the linker that connects the cytotoxic drug and the antibody during shipping and storage. We present here solid-state hydrogen-deuterium exchange with mass spectrometric analysis (ssHDX-MS) as a tool to analyze protein structure and matrix interactions for formulations of an ADC with and without commonly used excipients. We compared results of the ssHDX-MS with accelerated stability results using size-exclusion chromatography and determined that the former technique was able to successfully identify the destabilizing effects of mannitol and polysorbate 80. In comparison, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy results were inconclusive. The agreement between ssHDX-MS and stressed stability studies supports the potential of ssHDX-MS as a method of predicting relative stability of different formulations.

Akt and calcium-permeable AMPA receptor are involved in the effect of pinoresinol on amyloid ß-induced synaptic plasticity and memory deficits.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorders characterized by memory deficits. Although no drug has given promising results, synaptic dysfunction-modulating agents might be considered potential candidates for alleviating this disorder. Pinoresinol, a lignan found in Forsythia suspensa, is a memory-enhancing agent with excitatory synaptic activation. In the present study, we tested whether pinoresinol reduces learning and memory and excitatory synaptic deficits in an amyloid ß (Aß)-induced AD-like mouse model. Pinoresinol enhanced hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) through calcium-permeable AMPA receptor, which was mediated by Akt activation. Moreover, pinoresinol ameliorated LTP deficits in amyloid ß (Aß)-treated hippocampal slices via Akt signaling. Oral administration of pinoresinol ameliorated Aß-induced memory deficits without sensory dysfunction. Moreover, AD-like pathology, including neuroinflammation and synaptic deficit, were ameliorated by pinoresinol administration. Collectively, pinoresinol may be a good candidate for AD therapy by modulating synaptic functions.

REDD1 Is Involved in Amyloid ß-Induced Synaptic Dysfunction and Memory Impairment.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by neurological dysfunction, including memory impairment, attributed to the accumulation of amyloid ß (Aß) in the brain. Although several studies reported possible mechanisms involved in Aß pathology, much remains unknown. Previous findings suggested that a protein regulated in development and DNA damage response 1 (REDD1), a stress-coping regulator, is an Aß-responsive gene involved in Aß cytotoxicity. However, we still do not know how Aß increases the level of REDD1 and whether REDD1 mediates Aß-induced synaptic dysfunction. To elucidate this, we examined the effect of Aß on REDD1-expression using acute hippocampal slices from mice, and the effect of REDD1 short hairpin RNA (shRNA) on Aß-induced synaptic dysfunction. Lastly, we observed the effect of REDD1 shRNA on memory deficit in an AD-like mouse model. Through the experiments, we found that Aß-incubated acute hippocampal slices showed increased REDD1 levels. Moreover, Aß injection into the lateral ventricle increased REDD1 levels in the hippocampus. Anisomycin, but not actinomycin D, blocked Aß-induced increase in REDD1 levels in the acute hippocampal slices, suggesting that Aß may increase REDD1 translation rather than transcription. Aß activated Fyn/ERK/S6 cascade, and inhibitors for Fyn/ERK/S6 or mGluR5 blocked Aß-induced REDD1 upregulation. REDD1 inducer, a transcriptional activator, and Aß blocked synaptic plasticity in the acute hippocampal slices. REDD1 inducer inhibited mTOR/Akt signaling. REDD1 shRNA blocked Aß-induced synaptic deficits. REDD1 shRNA also blocked Aß-induced memory deficits in passive-avoidance and object-recognition tests. Collectively, these results demonstrate that REDD1 participates in Aß pathology and could be a target for AD therapy.

Rubrofusarin Attenuates Chronic Restraint Stress-Induced Depressive Symptoms.

The aim of this study was to examine whether rubrofusarin, an active ingredient of the Cassia species, has an antidepressive effect in chronic restraint stress (CRS) mouse model. Although acute treatment using rubrofusarin failed, chronic treatment using rubrofusarin ameliorated CRS-induced depressive symptoms. Rubrofusarin treatment significantly reduced the number of Fluoro-Jade B-positive cells and caspase-3 activation within the hippocampus of CRS-treated mice. Moreover, rubrofusarin treatment significantly increased the number of newborn neurons in the hippocampus of CRS-treated mice. CRS induced activation of glycogen synthase kinase-3ß and regulated development and DNA damage responses, and reductions in the extracellular-signal-regulated kinase pathway activity were also reversed by rubrofusarin treatment. Microglial activation and inflammasome markers, including nod-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 and adaptor protein apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing CARD, which were induced by CRS, were ameliorated by rubrofusarin. Synaptic plasticity dysfunction within the hippocampus was also rescued by rubrofusarin treatment. Within in vitro experiments, rubrofusarin blocked corticosterone-induced long-term potentiation impairments. These were blocked by LY294002, which is an Akt inhibitor. Finally, we found that the antidepressant effects of rubrofusarin were blocked by an intracerebroventricular injection of LY294002. These results suggest that rubrofusarin ameliorated CRS-induced depressive symptoms through PI3K/Akt signaling.

ß-Amyrin Ameliorates Alzheimer's Disease-Like Aberrant Synaptic Plasticity in the Mouse Hippocampus.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive and most frequently diagnosed neurodegenerative disorder. However, there is still no drug preventing the progress of this disorder. ß-Amyrin, an ingredient of the surface wax of tomato fruit and dandelion coffee, is previously reported to ameliorate memory impairment induced by cholinergic dysfunction. Therefore, we tested whether ß-amyrin can prevent AD-like pathology. ß-Amyrin blocked amyloid ß (Aß)-induced long-term potentiation (LTP) impairment in the hippocampal slices. Moreover, ß-amyrin improved Aß-induced suppression of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling. LY294002, a PI3K inhibitor, blocked the effect of ß-amyrin on Aß-induced LTP impairment. In in vivo experiments, we observed that ß-amyrin ameliorated object recognition memory deficit in Aß-injected AD mice model. Moreover, neurogenesis impairments induced by Aß was improved by ß-amyrin treatment. Taken together, ß-amyrin might be a good candidate of treatment or supplement for AD patients.

Cryptotanshinone enhances neurite outgrowth and memory via extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 signaling.

Neurite outgrowth is important process in synaptic formation and neuronal development. Many previous studies reported that natural compounds as well as neurotrophins induce neurite outgrowth through various signaling pathways. In this study, we tested the effect of cryptotanshinone (CPT), a constituent of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, on neurite outgrowth using neuro2a cell line, a mouse neuroblastoma cell line. And then, we examined the effect of CPT on learning and memory. We first found that CPT facilitated neurite outgrowth in a concentration-dependent manner. Although CPT induced MTT reduction, CPT did not induce LDH release. Moreover, CPT suppressed cell proliferation. CPT increased ERK1/2 phosphorylation and ERK1/2 inhibitor blocked CPT-facilitated neurite outgrowth. CPT also enhanced learning and memory without affecting basal sensory conditions and increased ERK1/2 phosphorylation in the hippocampus in a dose-dependent manner. These results demonstrate that CPT facilitates neurite outgrowth and enhances learning and memory, which may be mediated by facilitating ERK1/2 signal.

Spinosin Attenuates Alzheimer's Disease-Associated Synaptic Dysfunction via Regulation of Plasmin Activity.

Hippocampal synaptic dysfunction is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Many agents regulating hippocampal synaptic plasticity show an ameliorative effect on AD pathology, making them potential candidates for AD therapy. In the present study, we investigated spinosin as a regulating agent of synaptic plasticity in AD. Spinosin attenuated amyloid ß (Aß)-induced long-term potentiation (LTP) impairment, and improved plasmin activity and protein level in the hippocampi of 5XFAD mice, a transgenic AD mouse model. Moreover, the effect of spinosin on hippocampal LTP in 5XFAD mice was prevented by 6-aminocaproic acid, a plasmin inhibitor. These results suggest that spinosin improves synaptic function in the AD hippocampus by regulating plasmin activity.

The effect of coniferaldehyde on neurite outgrowth in neuroblastoma Neuro2a cells.

Neurite outgrowth is the differentiation process by which neurons establish synapses. In the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, new neurons are constantly produced and undergo neurite outgrowth to form synapses, and this process is involved in cognitive ability. Therefore, if an agent could modulate neurite outgrowth, it could potentially be developed as a compound for modulating cognitive ability. In this study, we examined whether coniferaldehyde, a natural compound, regulates neurite outgrowth in Neuro2a cells. We ascertained morphological changes and measured the percentage of neurite-bearing cells and neurite lengths. Coniferaldehyde significantly increased the percentage of neurite-bearing cells, and the length of neurites in a concentration-dependent manner, without inducing cell death. We then have identified that, coniferaldehyde activates the extracellular signals-regulated Kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2), and further noted that, U0126, an ERK1/2 inhibitor, blocks coniferaldehyde-facilitated neurite outgrowth. Moreover, Subchronic administration of CA enhanced learning and memory, and increased neurite length of newborn neurons in the hippocampus. These results suggest that coniferaldehyde induces neurite outgrowth by a process possibly mediated by ERK1/2 signaling and enhances learning and memory.

Rubrofusarin inhibits Aß aggregation and ameliorates memory loss in an Aß-induced Alzheimer's disease-like mouse model.

The misfolding and aggregation of amyloid ß (Aß) peptide is a common histopathologic characteristic in patients with Alzheimer's disease, so is considered to play an critical role. In the present study, we examined the effect of rubrofusarin, an ingredient of Cassiae semen, on Aß aggregation and memory loss in an AD mouse model. Rubrofusarin inhibited Aß aggregation in a concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, rubrofusarin dis-aggregated preformed Aß fibrils in a concentration-dependent manner. Although aggregated Aß induced memory loss, Aß pre-incubated with rubrofusarin failed to induce memory loss. Moreover, rubrofusarin administration ameliorated Aß aggregates-induced memory loss. Finally, rubrofusarin reduced glial fibrillary acidic protein or Iba-1-positive area, markers of neuroinflammation, in the hippocampus of Aß-treated mice. These results suggest that rubrofusarin can decrease Aß fibril formation and ameliorate memory loss in the AD mouse model.

The fruit of Crataegus pinnatifida ameliorates memory deficits in ß-amyloid protein-induced Alzheimer's disease mouse model.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The fruit of Crataegus pinnatifida is a traditional medicine widely used as digestive drug in East Asia. Although Chinese herbal medicine used it for mental health, scientific evidence does not exist, yet. AIMS OF STUDY: The aim of this study is to show that the ethanol extract of the fruit of Crataegus pinnatifida (CPE) has neuroprotective effect on Alzheimer' disease model mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Intracerebroventricular injection of Aß was used to induce Alzheimer's disease-like pathology. Passive avoidance and Y-maze tasks were used to examine the effect of CPE on memory impairments by Aß. Immunohistochemistry was used to examine the effect of CPE on glial activation. ThT assay was used to observe the effect of CPE on Aß aggregation. MTT and LDH release assays were utilized to examine effects of CPE on Aß-induced cytotoxicity. RESULTS: CPE prevented memory deficit in Aß-induced memory impairment model. Moreover, CPE prevented glial activation in the hippocampus of Aß-injected model. In in vitro test, CPE inhibited Aß fibril formation in a concentration-dependent manner. CPE also caused disaggregation of Aß fibrils. Along with this, CPE blocked neuronal cell death induced by Aß. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, these experimental findings demonstrated that CPE could be a candidate for development of AD therapy.