Frequency of Prenatal Care Visits: A Core Outcome Set for Prenatal Care Schedules.

Objective: The aim of this study is to develop a core outcome set for the frequency and modality of prenatal care visits. Material and Methods: A consensus development study was conducted in the United States with participants, including 31 health care professionals, 12 public policy members or public health payers, and 18 public members, representing 24 states. A modified Delphi method and modified nominal group technique were utilized. Results: Twenty-one potential core outcomes were developed by combining the outcomes reported in three systematic reviews that evaluated the frequency of prenatal care visits or modality of prenatal visit type (e.g., in person, telemedicine, or hybrids of both). Eighteen consensus outcomes were identified from the Delphi process, following which 10 maternal and 4 neonatal outcomes were agreed at the consensus development meeting. Maternal core outcomes include maternal quality of life; maternal mental health outcomes; the experience of maternity care; lost time; attendance of recommended visits; unplanned care utilization; completion of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists-recommended services; diagnosis of obstetric complications-proportion and timing; disparities in care outcomes; and severe maternal morbidity or mortality. Neonatal core outcomes include gestational age at birth, birth weight, stillbirth or perinatal death, and neonatal intensive care unit admissions. Conclusions: The core outcome set for the frequency and modality of prenatal visits should be utilized in forthcoming randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews. Such application will warrant that in future research, consistent reporting will enrich care and improve outcomes. Clinical Trial Registration number: 2021.

Frequency of Prenatal Care Visits: Protocol to Develop a Core Outcome Set for Prenatal Care Schedules.

BACKGROUND: Prenatal care, one of the most common preventive care services in the United States, endeavors to improve pregnancy outcomes through evidence-based screenings and interventions. Despite the prevalence of prenatal care and its importance to maternal and infant health, there are several debates about the best methods of prenatal care delivery, including the most appropriate schedule frequency and content of prenatal visits. Current US national guidelines recommend that low-risk individuals receive a standard schedule of 12 to 14 in-office visits, a care delivery model that has remained unchanged for almost a century. OBJECTIVE: In early 2020, to mitigate individuals' exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 virus, prenatal care providers implemented new paradigms that altered the schedule frequency, interval, and modality (eg, telemedicine) of how prenatal care services were offered. In this paper, we describe the development of a core outcome set (COS) that can be used to evaluate the effect of the frequency of prenatal care schedules on maternal and infant outcomes. METHODS: We will systematically review the literature to identify previously reported outcomes important to individuals who receive prenatal care and the people who care for them. Stakeholders with expertise in prenatal care delivery (ie, patients or family members, health care providers, and public health professionals and policy makers) will rate the importance of identified outcomes in a web-based survey using a 3-round Delphi process. A digital consensus meeting will be held for a group of stakeholder representatives to discuss and vote on the outcomes to include in the final COS. RESULTS: The Delphi survey was initiated in July 2022 with invited 71 stakeholders. A digital consensus conference was conducted on October 11, 2022. Data are currently under analysis with plans to submit them in a subsequent manuscript. CONCLUSIONS: More research about the optimal schedule frequency and modality for prenatal care delivery is needed. Standardizing outcomes that are measured and reported in evaluations of the recommended prenatal care schedules will assist evidence synthesis and results reported in systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Overall, this COS will expand the consistency and patient-centeredness of reported outcomes for various prenatal care delivery schedules and modalities, hopefully improving the overall efficacy of recommended care delivery for pregnant people and their families. INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/43962.

Impact of a stroke interprofessional simulation on health professional students.

INTRODUCTION: The objective was to describe the interprofessional stroke simulation delivered across three campuses with seven types of health professions students and the impact the activity had on the students. METHODS: An interprofessional stroke simulation event was completed with pharmacy, medical, nursing, physician assistant, occupational therapy, physical therapy, and speech pathology students across a multi-site campus. Pre-activity, demographic information was requested including age, gender, discipline, year in respective program, number of experiences in prior interprofessional events, and comfort working with other health care professionals. The survey was repeated after the session and gathered free-text responses on whether learners gained information on working together, if they learned about the roles of other health care workers, and if they found the session useful. RESULTS: A total of 1820 health care professional students completed the simulation activity over four years. Of those students, 1035 (57%) completed the pre-survey, and 884 (49%) completed the post-survey. From the post-survey results, 91.5% of participants felt that they learned how health care disciplines can work together. Also, 87% of participants felt more comfortable working with learners from other professions. Most participants agreed the session was useful (77.1%) and rated it as moderately to extremely effective (81.8%). CONCLUSIONS: Interprofessional sessions with health care professional students are beneficial for learning new information about other professions and enhancing comfort levels in working with interprofessional groups. The interprofessional simulation improved the comfort level of students working with other health care professional students and should be considered in professional student curricula.

Strategies for Prevention or Treatment of Tobacco and Cannabis Use Disorder.

Tobacco and cannabis use in pregnancy are associated with increased adverse perinatal and long-term offspring outcomes. Products for both have evolved with various forms available on the market, challenging accurate counseling of risks and quantification of tobacco and cannabis usage during the perinatal period. Health care providers are recommended to screen for any type of use, provide consistent messaging of harms of tobacco and cannabis use in pregnancy, and offer individualized interventions. The journey to cessation can be complicated by barriers and triggers, lack of social supports, and mental health challenges that should be addressed to prevent relapse and withdrawals.

Teachers as Learners: Developing Professionalism Feedback Skills via Observed Structured Teaching Encounters.

This Conversations Starter article presents a selected research abstract from the 2017 Association of American Medical Colleges Southern Region Group on Educational Affairs annual spring meeting. The abstract is paired with the integrative commentary of 4 experts who shared their thoughts stimulated by the study. These thoughts explore the value of the Observed Structured Teaching Encounter in providing structured opportunities for medical students to engage with the complexities of providing peer feedback on professionalism.

Diabetes Update: Primary Care of Patients With Type 1 Diabetes.

The incidence and prevalence of type 1 diabetes (T1D) are increasing among white, black, Hispanic, and Asian individuals in the United States. Children often present with acute symptoms, including severe polyuria, polydipsia, weight loss, and ketonemia; adults may develop more gradual symptoms that initially appear similar to those of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Latent autoimmune diabetes of adults and maturity-onset diabetes of the young are conditions that may be confused with T1D, although they are actually more closely related to T2D. Insulin analogues, continuous blood glucose level monitoring, and insulin pumps provide increased flexibility in T1D management. Noninsulin therapies also are being studied for management of T1D and T2D. The tailoring care of plans to the developmental age of each patient is critical to provide necessary screening and prevent common complications.

Diabetes Update: Risk Factors, Screening, Diagnosis, and Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is the result of insulin resistance. Significant differences are noted in the prevalence of T2D among races. Screening recommendations vary by subspecialty society. Asian Americans should be screened for T2D at a lower body mass index (BMI) (ie, 23 kg/m2) than other racial groups. Risk factors for T2D include high-risk ethnicity, obesity, taking of certain drugs (including statins), and gestational diabetes. Health disparities and genetics also influence risk of T2D, although these complexities continue to be poorly understood. Lifestyle changes, weight loss, and increased exercise are proven to decrease the risk of T2D. There also is strong evidence that bariatric surgery reduces the risk. Current debate focuses on whether BMI should continue to be used to determine candidacy for bariatric surgery, or whether patients at risk of T2D with nonobese BMIs also might benefit from these procedures.

Diabetes Update: Prevention and Management of Diabetes Complications.

Macrovascular complications of diabetes include cardiovascular events, whereas common microvascular complications include neuropathy, retinopathy, and diabetic kidney disease. Control of hypertension and dyslipidemia is an important step in minimizing the risk of complications. Blood pressure (BP) levels should be maintained at less than 140 mm Hg systolic and less than 90 mm Hg diastolic. In older adults, medical therapy to reduce BP to less than 130/70 mm Hg is not recommended. In these patients, a systolic BP level less than 130 mm Hg has not been shown to improve atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) outcomes, and a diastolic BP less than 70 mm Hg is associated with a higher mortality risk. Patients with diabetes and a history of ASCVD should be treated with high-dose statins. A combination of ezetimibe and a moderate-dose statin is an option for patients who cannot tolerate high-dose therapy. Screening for kidney disease should be performed using estimated glomerular filtration rate and urine albumin measurement. Clinicians should be familiar with the limitations of both methods. Whether patients with diabetes are at increased risk of concomitant depression is not well understood, although a link has been shown in large, observational studies.

Diabetes Update: New Pharmacotherapy for Type 2 Diabetes.

Multiple new drugs for managing type 2 diabetes have entered the market in the past 5 years. Guidelines from the American Diabetes Association recommend metformin for initial therapy, followed by a second drug if A1c goals are not met or initially for patients with A1c levels greater than 9%. Conversely, the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists recommends initial management with two drugs if the A1c level is greater than 7.5%. The risk of lactic acidosis associated with metformin has been shown to be less than previously thought, with newer guidelines permitting use with an estimated glomerular filtration rate of 45 to 60 mL/min/1.73 m2. Newer studies provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of and indications for use of sodium-dependent glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists, and inhaled insulin.

Speaking up: using OSTEs to understand how medical students address professionalism lapses.

BACKGROUND: Objective-structured teaching encounters (OSTEs) are used across many disciplines to assess teaching ability. The OSTE detailed in this paper assesses 191 fourth-year medical students' (M4) ability to identify and address lapses in professionalism based on Association of American Medical Colleges' professionalism competencies. The research questions addressed are How frequently do M4s address professionalism lapses observed during an OSTE? What factors influence whether M4s provide feedback when they observe professionalism lapses in an OSTE? METHODS: Standardized patients (SPs) and standardized learners (SLs) were recruited and trained to participate in a standardized encounter with specific cognitive, social, and behavioral errors, including professionalism lapses. M4s viewed this encounter and then offered feedback to the SL, while remotely observed by faculty. Post-encounter, the SL and faculty completed identical checklists to assess both teaching readiness and ability to address professionalism concerns. RESULTS: An analysis of frequencies showed that six of the Association of American Medical Colleges' nine professional competencies were addressed in the checklist and/or discussed in the focus group. Analysis of transcribed debriefing sessions confirmed that M4s did not consistently address professionalism lapses by their peers. CONCLUSIONS: In focus groups, M4s indicated that, while they noticed professionalism issues, they were uncomfortable discussing them with the SLs. Findings of the current study suggest how medical educators might support learners' ability to address lapses in professionalism as well as topics for future research.

Respiratory infections: community-acquired pneumonia.

Pneumonia causes substantial morbidity and mortality. Older age, suppressed immune function, and certain drugs increase the risk of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), whereas adequate dental care and high socioeconomic status decrease the risk. For patients without other significant cardiopulmonary disease, the diagnosis of pneumonia can be straightforward. Common symptoms include fever, chills, pleuritic chest pain, and a cough with mucopurulent sputum. Bacterial and viral infections are the most common etiologies. Fungal and parasitic etiologies are less common. Illness severity scores and new diagnostic methods, including procalcitonin, proadrenomedullin, and bacterial diagnostic testing, are being used increasingly for CAP diagnosis. Antibiotic selection and treatment duration for CAP have become more standardized to decrease rates of bacterial antibiotic resistance. Still, CAP causes significant expense in human life and cost expenditures worldwide.

Respiratory infections: pulmonary tuberculosis.

Family physicians can prevent mortality and disability due to pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) by identifying high-risk patients. Recognition of symptoms (eg, cough for 3 weeks or longer) helps prevent overlooked diagnoses because results of tuberculin skin tests and interferon-gamma release assays are negative in up to 25% and 21%, respectively, of severe acute cases. The typical x-ray findings of cavities, infiltrates, and lymphadenopathy are minimal among immunosuppressed patients. Cases of active TB must be reported to local or state health departments within 24 hours of diagnosis. Sputum acid-fast bacillus tests provide results within hours and help quantify bacterial load but are not highly sensitive, and infection with nontuberculous mycobacteria can cause positive test results. Sputum cultures are adequately sensitive, identify mycobacterial species, and provide organisms for antibiotic susceptibility testing but require weeks for results. Molecular detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and of antibiotic-resistant mutations can expedite diagnosis and management of drug-resistant TB. Management of active TB should include directly observed therapy. Standard 6-month therapy with rifampin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol resolves infection in nearly all immunocompetent adults with pansensitive TB. Multidrug-resistant TB requires second-line antibiotics (eg, fluoroquinolones, linezolid) in individualized regimens lasting 2 years. Management of latent TB infection prevents progression to active TB disease, particularly if management is completed within 2 years of infection.

Respiratory infections: fungal infections.

Fungal infections cause pneumonia but are less common than bacterial or viral etiologies; therefore, fungal infections often are diagnosed late and can be lethal in a small percentage of cases. Although traditionally thought to affect mostly individuals with impaired immunity, fungal infections also occur in immunocompetent individuals and can be severe, even in the latter group. Important advances in the diagnosis and management of fungal infections have occurred in the past decade. Obtaining a detailed history is critical because many fungal infections are associated with specific activities, geographic locations, and environmental exposures. Newer diagnostic methods such as galactomannan antigen testing, polymerase chain reaction, and breath testing are used increasingly in the diagnosis of fungal infections. Newer azole antibiotics also are available to manage these infections.

Respiratory infections: respiratory infections in immigrants to the United States.

Immigration has brought millions of individuals into the United States over the past decade. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the US Public Health Service are charged with ensuring that immigrants who enter do not pose a public health risk. Health examinations and immunization regimens are required for individuals wishing to live in the United States. Many immigrants and refugees are exposed to communicable diseases not routinely encountered in the United States These include helminthic infections, tuberculosis, malaria, and other infections. Zoonotic infections, such as influenza A, and novel coronavirus infections also are of increasing concern because of population mobility.

Graves' disease and treatment effects on warfarin anticoagulation.

Background. Hyperthyroidism causes an increased hypoprothrombinemic response to warfarin anticoagulation. Previous studies have demonstrated that patients with hyperthyroidism require lower dosages of warfarin to achieve a therapeutic effect. As hyperthyroidism is treated and euthyroidism is approached, patients may require increasing warfarin dosages to maintain appropriate anticoagulation. We describe a patient's varying response to warfarin during treatment of Graves' disease. Case Presentation. A 48-year-old African American female presented to the emergency room with tachycardia, new onset bilateral lower extremity edema, gradual weight loss, palpable goiter, and generalized sweating over the prior 4 months. She was admitted with Graves' disease and new onset atrial fibrillation. Primary stroke prophylaxis was started using warfarin; the patient developed a markedly supratherapeutic INR likely due to hyperthyroidism. After starting methimazole, her free thyroxine approached euthyroid levels and the INR became subtherapeutic. She remained subtherapeutic over several months despite steadily increasing dosages of warfarin. Immediately following thyroid radioablation and discontinuation of methimazole, the patient's warfarin dose and INR stabilized. Conclusion. Clinicians should expect an increased response to warfarin in patients with hyperthyroidism and close monitoring of the INR is imperative to prevent adverse effects. As patients approach euthyroidism, insufficient anticoagulation is likely without vigilant follow-up, INR monitoring, and increasing warfarin dosages.

Adolescent bipolar disorder: a clinical vignette.

Adolescence is a vulnerable developmental phase marked by physical, psychological, and social changes that rapidly expose young people to a wide range of new stressors. When differentiating between bipolar disorder and teenage "acting out," a careful history is important. Adolescent bipolar disorder is a psychiatric illness characterized by fluctuating episodes of mood elevation and depression that is frequently neither recognized nor formally diagnosed. Adolescents with bipolar disorder often manifest a more nonepisodic, chronic course with continuous rapid-cycling patterns than do adults. Pharmacologic treatment of adolescent bipolar disorder is difficult and often requires combination therapy to address comorbidities like attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and anxiety disorder. Adjuncts to pharmacologic treatment of bipolar disorder can be beneficial. Psychosocial treatments include family education, enhanced parenting techniques, stress management, and the development of effective coping strategies.

Diagnosis and treatment of streptococcal pharyngitis.

Common signs and symptoms of streptococcal pharyngitis include sore throat, temperature greater than 100.4 degrees F (38 degrees C), tonsillar exudates, and cervical adenopathy. Cough, coryza, and diarrhea are more common with viral pharyngitis. Available diagnostic tests include throat culture and rapid antigen detection testing. Throat culture is considered the diagnostic standard, although the sensitivity and specificity of rapid antigen detection testing have improved significantly. The modified Centor score can be used to help physicians decide which patients need no testing, throat culture/rapid antigen detection testing, or empiric antibiotic therapy. Penicillin (10 days of oral therapy or one injection of intramuscular benzathine penicillin) is the treatment of choice because of cost, narrow spectrum of activity, and effectiveness. Amoxicillin is equally effective and more palatable. Erythromycin and first-generation cephalosporins are options in patients with penicillin allergy. Increased group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (GABHS) treatment failure with penicillin has been reported. Although current guidelines recommend first-generation cephalosporins for persons with penicillin allergy, some advocate the use of cephalosporins in all nonallergic patients because of better GABHS eradication and effectiveness against chronic GABHS carriage. Chronic GABHS colonization is common despite appropriate use of antibiotic therapy. Chronic carriers are at low risk of transmitting disease or developing invasive GABHS infections, and there is generally no need to treat carriers. Whether tonsillectomy or adenoidectomy decreases the incidence of GABHS pharyngitis is poorly understood. At this time, the benefits are too small to outweigh the associated costs and surgical risks.

Toilet training.

Toilet training is a developmental task that impacts families with small children. All healthy children are eventually toilet trained, and most complete the task without medical intervention. Most research on toilet training is descriptive, although some is evidence based. In the United States, the average age at which training begins has increased over the past four decades from earlier than 18 months of age to between 21 and 36 months of age. Newer studies suggest no benefit of intensive training before 27 months of age. Mastery of the developmental skills required for toilet training occurs after 24 months of age. Girls usually complete training earlier than boys. Numerous toilet-training methods are available. The Brazelton child-oriented approach uses physiologic maturity, ability to understand and respond to external feedback, and internal motivation to assess readiness. Dr. Spock's toilet-training approach is another popular method used by parents. The American Academy of Pediatrics incorporates components of the child-oriented approach into its guidelines for toilet training. "Toilet training in a day," a method by Azrin and Foxx, emphasizes operant conditioning and teaches specific toileting components. Because each family and child are unique, recommendations about the ideal time or optimal method must be customized. Family physicians should provide guidance about toilet-training methods and identify children who have difficulty reaching developmental milestones.