Differential expression of genes controlling lymphocyte differentiation and migration in two distinct endotypes of type 1 diabetes.

AIMS: Morphological studies of pancreas samples obtained from young people with recent-onset type 1 diabetes have revealed distinct patterns of immune cell infiltration of the pancreatic islets suggestive of two age-associated type 1 diabetes endotypes that differ by inflammatory responses and rates of disease progression. The objective of this study was to investigate whether these proposed disease endotypes are associated with pathological differences in immune cell activation and cytokine secretion by applying multiplexed gene expression analysis to pancreatic tissue from recent-onset type 1 diabetes cases. METHODS: RNA was extracted from samples of fixed, paraffin-embedded pancreas tissue from type 1 diabetes cases characterised by endotype and from controls without diabetes. Expression levels of 750 genes associated with autoimmune inflammation were determined by hybridisation to a panel of capture and reporter probes and these were counted as a measure of gene expression. Normalised counts were analysed for differences in expression between 29 type 1 diabetes cases and 7 controls without diabetes, and between the two type 1 diabetes endotypes. RESULTS: Ten inflammation-associated genes, including INS, were significantly under-expressed in both endotypes and 48 genes were more highly expressed. A different set of 13 genes associated with the development, activation and migration of lymphocytes was uniquely overexpressed in the pancreas of people developing diabetes at younger age. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide evidence that histologically defined type 1 diabetes endotypes differ in their immunopathology and identify inflammatory pathways specifically involved in disease developing at a young age, essential for a better understanding of disease heterogeneity.

Autoimmunity to tetraspanin-7 in type 1 diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease whereby components of insulin-secreting pancreatic beta cells are targeted by the adaptive immune system leading to the destruction of these cells and insulin deficiency. There is much interest in the development of antigen-specific immune intervention as an approach to prevent disease development in individuals identified as being at risk of disease. It is now recognised that there are multiple targets of the autoimmune response in type 1 diabetes, the most recently identified being a member of the tetraspanin family, tetraspanin-7. The heterogeneity of autoimmune responses to different target antigens complicates the assessment of diabetes risk by the detection of autoantibodies, as well as creating challenges for the design of strategies to intervene in the immune response to these autoantigens. This review describes the discovery of tetraspanin-7 as a target of autoantibodies in type 1 diabetes and how the detection of autoantibodies to the protein provides a valuable marker for future loss of pancreatic beta-cell function.

A longitudinal study of autoantibodies against cytochrome P450 side-chain cleavage enzyme in dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) affected with hypoadrenocorticism (Addison's disease).

Autoantibodies directed against the P450 side chain cleavage enzyme (P450scc) have been recently described in dogs affected with hypoadrenocorticism, consistent with an immune-mediated pathogenesis of this endocrinopathy. In human autoimmune Addison's disease, autoantibodies may have a predictive value, being detectable before clinical signs developing, and have been shown to persist for a period of time after diagnosis. Furthermore, an autoantibody positive status post-diagnosis has been associated with successful remission of Addison's disease following B-cell depletion, suggesting active immunopathology in these cases. The current study was designed to investigate changes in serum P450scc autoantibody status over time in dogs diagnosed with spontaneous hypoadrenocorticism. P450scc autoantibodies were measured using a species-specific radioimmunoprecipitation assay in an initial cohort of 213 dogs, indicating a prevalence of 24%. Thirty two of these dogs had repeat samples (n = 80 in total) available for analysis. Five dogs were consistently P450scc autoantibody positive in all samples, for up to 425 days following first sampling. Three dogs were initially autoantibody positive, then became seronegative at later time points. One dog, a 1 year old female entire standard poodle, was initially negative for P450scc autoantibodies, but seroconverted 18 months after diagnosis. The remaining 23 dogs with multiple samples available were consistently P450scc autoantibody negative. Persistence was not associated with sex (p = .673). This study demonstrates persistence of P450scc autoantibodies in a subset of dogs affected with hypoadrenocorticism and seroconversion over one year post-diagnosis. P450scc autoantibody reactivity in human autoimmune Addison's disease has been associated with sex, with females having a higher prevalence, possibly due to P450scc expression in the ovary acting as an additional source of antigenic stimulation. However, there was no sex difference in autoantibody persistence in the dogs affected with hypoadrenocorticism. Autontibody persistence in dogs with hypoadrenocorticism might represent persistent pathology, due to residual antigenic stimulation and autoimmune inflammation in the adrenal gland.

Identification of Tetraspanin-7 as a Target of Autoantibodies in Type 1 Diabetes.

The presence of autoantibodies to multiple-islet autoantigens confers high risk for the development of type 1 diabetes. Four major autoantigens are established (insulin, glutamate decarboxylase, IA2, and zinc transporter-8), but the molecular identity of a fifth, a 38-kDa membrane glycoprotein (Glima), is unknown. Glima antibodies have been detectable only by immunoprecipitation from extracts of radiolabeled islet or neuronal cells. We sought to identify Glima to enable efficient assay of these autoantibodies. Mouse brain and lung were shown to express Glima. Membrane glycoproteins from extracts of these organs were enriched by detergent phase separation, lectin affinity chromatography, and SDS-PAGE. Proteins were also immunoaffinity purified from brain extracts using autoantibodies from the sera of patients with diabetes before SDS-PAGE. Eluates from gel regions equivalent to 38 kDa were analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for protein identification. Three proteins were detected in samples from the brain and lung extracts, and in the immunoaffinity-purified sample, but not in the negative control. Only tetraspanin-7, a multipass transmembrane glycoprotein with neuroendocrine expression, had physical characteristics expected of Glima. Tetraspanin-7 was confirmed as an autoantigen by demonstrating binding to autoantibodies in type 1 diabetes. We identify tetraspanin-7 as a target of autoimmunity in diabetes, allowing its exploitation for diabetes prediction and immunotherapy.

Influence of HLA-DR and -DQ alleles on autoantibody recognition of distinct epitopes within the juxtamembrane domain of the IA-2 autoantigen in type 1 diabetes.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Insulinoma-associated protein 2 (IA-2) is a major target of autoimmunity in type 1 diabetes. When first detected, IA-2-autoantibodies commonly bind epitopes in the juxtamembrane (JM) domain of IA-2 and antibody responses subsequently spread to the tyrosine phosphatase domain. Definition of structures of epitopes in the JM domain, and genetic requirements for autoimmunity to these epitopes, is important for our understanding of initiation and progression of autoimmunity. The aims of this study were to investigate the contribution of individual amino acids in the IA-2 JM domain to antibody binding to these epitopes and the role of HLA genotypes in determining epitope specificity. METHODS: Regions of the JM domain recognised by autoantibodies were identified by peptide competition and inhibitory effects of alanine substitutions of residues within the JM region. Antibody binding was determined by radioligand binding assays using sera from patients genotyped for HLA-DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles. RESULTS: Patients were categorised into two distinct groups of JM antibody reactivity according to peptide inhibition. Inhibition by substitutions of individual amino acids within the JM domain differed between patients, indicating heterogeneity in epitope recognition. Cluster analysis defined six groups of residues having similar inhibitory effects on antibody binding, with three clusters showing differences in patients affected or unaffected by peptide. One cluster demonstrated significant differences in antibody binding between HLA-DRB1*04 and HLA-DRB1*07 patients and within DRB1*04 individuals; antibody recognition of a second cluster depended on expression of HLA-DQB1*0302. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: The results identify amino acids contributing to distinct epitopes on IA-2, with both HLA-DR and HLA-DQ alleles influencing epitope specificity.

Isolation of human monoclonal autoantibodies derived from pancreatic lymph node and peripheral blood B cells of islet autoantibody-positive patients.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Autoantibodies against pancreatic islets and infections by enteroviruses are associated with type 1 diabetes, but the specificity of immune responses within the type 1 diabetic pancreas is poorly characterised. We investigated whether pancreatic lymph nodes could provide a source of antigen-specific B cells for analysis of immune responses within the (pre)diabetic pancreas. METHODS: Human IgG antibodies were cloned from single B lymphocytes sorted from pancreatic lymph node cells of three organ donors positive for islet autoantibodies, and from the peripheral blood of a patient with type 1 diabetes. Antibodies to insulinoma-associated antigen 2 (IA-2), GAD65, zinc transporter 8 (ZnT8) and Coxsackie B virus proteins were assayed by immunoprecipitation and by immunofluorescence on pancreatic sections. RESULTS: Human IgG antibodies (863) were successfully cloned and produced from 4,092 single B cells from lymph nodes and peripheral blood. Reactivity to the protein tyrosine phosphatase domain of the IA-2 autoantigen was detected in two cloned antibodies: one derived from a pancreatic lymph node and one from peripheral blood. Epitopes for these two antibodies were similar to each other and to those for circulating antibodies in type 1 diabetes. The remaining 861 antibodies were negative for reactivity to IA-2, GAD65 or ZnT8 by both assays tested. Reactivity to a Coxsackie viral protein 2 was detected in one antibody derived from a peripheral blood B cell, but not from lymph nodes. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: We show evidence for the infrequent presence of autoantigen-specific IgG+ B lymphocytes in the pancreatic-draining lymph nodes of islet autoantibody-positive individuals.

Autoantibodies against Cytochrome P450 Side-Chain Cleavage Enzyme in Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) Affected with Hypoadrenocorticism (Addison's Disease).

Canine hypoadrenocorticism likely arises from immune-mediated destruction of adrenocortical tissue, leading to glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid deficiency. In humans with autoimmune Addison's disease (AAD) or autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome (APS), circulating autoantibodies have been demonstrated against enzymes associated with adrenal steroid synthesis. The current study investigates autoantibodies against steroid synthesis enzymes in dogs with spontaneous hypoadrenocorticism. Coding regions of canine CYP21A2 (21-hydroxylase; 21-OH), CYP17A1 (17-hydroxylase; 17-OH), CYP11A1 (P450 side-chain cleavage enzyme; P450scc) and HSD3B2 (3ß hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase; 3ßHSD) were amplified, cloned and expressed as 35S-methionine radiolabelled recombinant protein. In a pilot study, serum samples from 20 dogs with hypoadrenocorticism and four unaffected control dogs were screened by radio-immunoprecipitation assay. There was no evidence of reactivity against 21-OH, 17-OH or 3ßHSD, but five dogs with hypoadrenocorticism showed immunoreactivity to P450scc compared with controls. Serum samples were subsequently obtained from 213 dogs diagnosed with hypoadrenocorticism and 110 dogs from a hospital control population. Thirty control dogs were randomly selected to establish a threshold for antibody positivity (mean + 3 × standard deviation). Dogs with hypoadrenocorticism were more likely to be P450scc autoantibody positive than hospital controls (24% vs. 1.2%, respectively; p = 0.0016). Sex was significantly associated with the presence of P450scc autoantibodies in the case population, with 30% of females testing positive compared with 17% of males (p = 0.037). Significant associations with breed (p = 0.015) and DLA-type (DQA1*006:01 allele; p = 0.017) were also found. This cross-sectional study indicates that P450scc autoantibodies are present in a proportion of dogs affected with hypoadrenocorticism.

Relationships between major epitopes of the IA-2 autoantigen in Type 1 diabetes: Implications for determinant spreading.

Diversification of autoimmunity to islet autoantigens is critical for progression to Type 1 diabetes. B-cells participate in diversification by modifying antigen processing, thereby influencing which peptides are presented to T-cells. In Type 1 diabetes, JM antibodies are associated with T-cell responses to PTP domain peptides. We investigated whether this is the consequence of close structural alignment of JM and PTP domain determinants on IA-2. Fab fragments of IA-2 antibodies with epitopes mapped to the JM domain blocked IA-2 binding of antibodies that recognise epitopes in the IA-2 PTP domain. Peptides from both the JM and PTP domains were protected from degradation during proteolysis of JM antibody:IA-2 complexes and included those representing major T-cell determinants in Type 1 diabetes. The results demonstrate close structural relationships between JM and PTP domain epitopes on IA-2. Stabilisation of PTP domain peptides during proteolysis in JM-specific B-cells may explain determinant spreading in IA-2 autoimmunity.

HLA-DR4-associated T and B cell responses to specific determinants on the IA-2 autoantigen in type 1 diabetes.

Autoantibodies to IA-2 in type 1 diabetes are associated with HLA-DR4, suggesting influences of HLA-DR4-restricted T cells on IA-2-specific B cell responses. The aim of this study was to investigate possible T-B cell collaboration by determining whether autoantibodies to IA-2 epitopes are associated with T cell responses to IA-2 peptides presented by DR4. T cells secreting the cytokines IFN-γ and IL-10 in response to seven peptides known to elicit T cell responses in type 1 diabetes were quantified by cytokine ELISPOT in HLA-typed patients characterized for Abs to IA-2 epitopes. T cell responses were detected to all peptides tested, but only IL-10 responses to 841-860 and 853-872 peptides were associated with DR4. Phenotyping by RT-PCR of FACS-sorted CD45RO(hi) T cells secreting IL-10 in response to these two peptides indicated that these expressed GATA-3 or T-bet, but not FOXP3, consistent with these being Th2 or Th1 memory T cells rather than of regulatory phenotype. T cell responses to the same two peptides were also associated with specific Abs: those to 841-860 peptide with Abs to juxtamembrane epitopes, which appear early in prediabetes, and those to peptide 853-872 with Abs to an epitope located in the 831-862 central region of the IA-2 tyrosine phosphatase domain. Abs to juxtamembrane and central region constructs were both DR4 associated. This study identifies a region of focus for B and T cell responses to IA-2 in HLA-DR4 diabetic patients that may explain HLA associations of IA-2 autoantibodies, and this region may provide a target for future immune intervention to prevent disease.

Failure to detect anti-idiotypic antibodies in the autoimmune response to IA-2 in Type 1 diabetes.

The concept that immune responses to self antigens are regulated by anti-idiotypic networks has attracted renewed interest following reports of circulating factors within IgG fractions of serum that impair detection of autoantibodies with autoantigen. Thus, preclearance of sera with bead-immobilised monoclonal autoantibodies to the Type 1 diabetes autoantigen GAD65, or prebinding of serum antibodies to protein A Sepharose prior to addition of antigen, increases immunoreactivity detected in serum samples consistent with the trapping on the beads of anti-idiotypic antibodies that block antibody binding to the autoantigen. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of anti-idiotypic antibodies to another major target of autoantibodies in Type 1 diabetes, IA-2. As previously observed for GAD65, preadsorption of serum samples with immobilised monoclonal IA-2 autoantibody, or prebinding to protein A Sepharose, resulted in substantial increases in subsequent immunoprecipitation of radiolabeled IA-2 in a proportion of samples. However, control experiments indicated that the increases seen on pre-incubation with immobilized autoantibodies were caused by displacement of the antibody by serum IgG, whereas impaired detection of immunoreactivity in liquid-phase radiobinding assays was the result of formation of insoluble complexes that bind poorly to protein A. The results emphasise the importance of direct demonstration of specific binding of antibodies to the idiotype in the study of idiotypic networks in autoimmunity. Variability between patients in formation of insoluble immune complexes has implications for the design and standardization of autoantibody assays for diabetes prediction.

Somatostatin secreted by islet delta-cells fulfills multiple roles as a paracrine regulator of islet function.

OBJECTIVE: Somatostatin (SST) is secreted by islet delta-cells and by extraislet neuroendocrine cells. SST receptors have been identified on alpha- and beta-cells, and exogenous SST inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion, consistent with a role for SST in regulating alpha- and beta-cell function. However, the specific intraislet function of delta-cell SST remains uncertain. We have used Sst(-/-) mice to investigate the role of delta-cell SST in the regulation of insulin and glucagon secretion in vitro and in vivo. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Islet morphology was assessed by histological analysis. Hormone levels were measured by radioimmunoassay in control and Sst(-/-) mice in vivo and from isolated islets in vitro. RESULTS: Islet size and organization did not differ between Sst(-/-) and control islets, nor did islet glucagon or insulin content. Sst(-/-) mice showed enhanced insulin and glucagon secretory responses in vivo. In vitro stimulus-induced insulin and glucagon secretion was enhanced from perifused Sst(-/-) islets compared with control islets and was inhibited by exogenous SST in Sst(-/-) but not control islets. No difference in the switch-off rate of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion was observed between genotypes, but the cholinergic agonist carbamylcholine enhanced glucose-induced insulin secretion to a lesser extent in Sst(-/-) islets compared with controls. Glucose suppressed glucagon secretion from control but not Sst(-/-) islets. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest that delta-cell SST exerts a tonic inhibitory influence on insulin and glucagon secretion, which may facilitate the islet response to cholinergic activation. In addition, delta-cell SST is implicated in the nutrient-induced suppression of glucagon secretion.

The lack of anti-idiotypic antibodies, not the presence of the corresponding autoantibodies to glutamate decarboxylase, defines type 1 diabetes.

Autoantibodies to glutamate decarboxylase 65 (GAD65Ab) are commonly believed to be a major characteristic for type 1 diabetes (T1D). We investigated the presence of GAD65Ab in healthy individuals (n = 238) and first-degree relatives (FDRs) of T1D patients (n = 27) who tested negative for GAD65Ab in conventional RIAs. Sera were applied to affinity columns coated with GAD65-specific mAbs to absorb anti-idiotypic antibodies (anti-Ids). The absorbed sera were analyzed for binding to GAD65 by RIAs. Both healthy individuals and FDRs present GAD65Ab that are inhibited by anti-Id, masking them in conventional detection methods. The presence of GAD65Ab-specific anti-Ids was confirmed by competitive ELISA. Remarkably, T1D patients (n = 54) and Stiff Person Syndrome patients (n = 8) show a specific lack of anti-Ids to disease-associated GAD65Ab epitopes. Purified anti-Ids from healthy individuals and FDRs inhibited the binding of GAD65Ab from T1D patients to GAD65. We conclude that masked GAD65Ab are present in the healthy population and that a lack of particular anti-Ids, rather than GAD65Ab per se, is a characteristic of T1D. The lack of these inhibitory antibodies may contribute to T cell activation by GAD65Ab.

Diet-induced obesity in female mice leads to offspring hyperphagia, adiposity, hypertension, and insulin resistance: a novel murine model of developmental programming.

Maternal obesity is increasingly prevalent and may affect the long-term health of the child. We investigated the effects of maternal diet-induced obesity in mice on offspring metabolic and cardiovascular function. Female C57BL/6J mice were fed either a standard chow (3% fat, 7% sugar) or a palatable obesogenic diet (16% fat, 33% sugar) for 6 weeks before mating and throughout pregnancy and lactation. Offspring of control (OC) and obese dams (OO) were weaned onto standard chow and studied at 3 and 6 months of age. OO were hyperphagic from 4 to 6 weeks of age compared with OC and at 3 months locomotor activity was reduced and adiposity increased (abdominal fat pad mass; P<0.01). OO were heavier than OC at 6 months (body weight, P<0.05). OO abdominal obesity was associated with adipocyte hypertrophy and altered mRNA expression of beta-adrenoceptor 2 and 3, 11 beta HSD-1, and PPAR-gamma 2. OO showed resistance artery endothelial dysfunction at 3 months, and were hypertensive, as assessed by radiotelemetry (nighttime systolic blood pressure at 6 months [mm Hg] mean+/-SEM, male OO, 134+/-1 versus OC, 124+/-2, n=8, P<0.05; female OO, 137+/-2 versus OC, 122+/-4, n=8, P<0.01). OO skeletal muscle mass (tibialis anterior) was significantly reduced (P<0.01) OO fasting insulin was raised at 3 months and by 6 months fasting plasma glucose was elevated. Exposure to the influences of maternal obesity in the developing mouse led to adult offspring adiposity and cardiovascular and metabolic dysfunction. Developmentally programmed hyperphagia, physical inactivity, and altered adipocyte metabolism may play a mechanistic role.

Evidence for the presence of stem cell-like progenitor cells in human adult pancreas.

The origin of cells replacing ageing beta-cells in adult life is unknown. This study assessed the expression of classic stem cell markers: Oct4, Sox2 and CD34 in islet-enriched fractions versus exocrine cell-enriched fractions from 25 adult human pancreases following human islet isolation. Expression of Oct4, Sox2 and CD34 mRNAs was found in all cell samples, with no significant differences between endocrine and exocrine cell fractions. Immunohistochemical staining for Oct4, Sox2, CD133, CD34, CK19, insulin and nestin on human pancreas sections showed that the majority of Oct4(+ve) cells were found in the walls of small ducts. Similar localisations were observed for Sox2(+ve) cells. The majority of Sox2(+ve) cells were found to co-express Oct4 proteins, but not vice versa. Cells positive for Oct4 and Sox2 appeared to be a unique cell population in the adult human pancreases without co-expression for CK19, CD34, CD133, insulin and nestin proteins. The numbers of Oct4(+ve) and Sox2(+ve) cells varied among donors and were approximately 1-200 and 1-30 per 100 000 pancreatic cells respectively.

Homotypic cell contact enhances insulin but not glucagon secretion.

Intra-islet interactions influence beta-cell function, and disruption of islet architecture results in a reduction in glucose-induced insulin secretion, whereas re-aggregation improves secretory responsiveness. Our studies on MIN6 cells have shown that by configuring beta-cells as three-dimensional islet-like structures there is a marked improvement in glucose-induced insulin secretion compared to that of their monolayer equivalents. In the present study, we have used the mouse glucagon-secreting alphaTC1 cell line to see whether homotypic interactions are important in the regulation of glucagon secretion from alpha-cells. We found no significant difference in the secretory responses of alphaTC1 cells maintained as monolayers or as cell clusters. We also found that different cell adhesion molecules are involved in cell interactions between alpha- and beta-cells; MIN6 cells express ECAD, whereas alphaTC1 cells express NCAM. ECAD is necessary for cell cluster formation by MIN6 cells but not by alphaTC1 cells, whereas NCAM is not needed for the formation of cell clusters in either cell line.

Monoclonal antibody 76F distinguishes IA-2 from IA-2beta and overlaps an autoantibody epitope.

IA-2 and IA-2beta are highly related proteins that are autoantigens in type 1 diabetes, and provide a model for developing reagents and assays that distinguish similar proteins with unique autoantibody epitopes. Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) to IA-2 and IA-2beta were prepared and tested for their ability to bind to the related proteins and their ability to compete for specific autoantibody epitope binding by sera from patients with type 1 diabetes. Monoclonal antibodies that specifically bound IA-2 (76F) or bound both IA-2 and IA-2beta (A9) were isolated and characterized. 76F mAb recognized IA-2 of human, rat and mouse origin in native and denatured forms and had an epitope specificity for residues 626-630 (FEYQD) which are found in the juxtamembrane (JM) region of human and mouse IA-2, but not IA-2beta. This region overlaps with the autoantibody epitope JM2. Binding to the 76F monoclonal antibody was specifically inhibited by sera with antibodies to the JM2 epitope but not with antibodies to the adjacent JM1 epitope, indicating that unique epitopes can be distinguished by this approach. 76F mAb has the unique property to distinguish between the two closely related autoantigens IA-2 and IA-2beta by targeting an IA-2 specific epitope of the juxtamembrane region. The findings define an approach to develop assays for specific antibody epitope measurements which may be relevant for disease prognosis and monitoring intervention therapies.

The dense core transmembrane vesicle protein IA-2 is a regulator of vesicle number and insulin secretion.

IA-2 is an enzymatically inactive member of the transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphate family located in dense core secretory vesicles and a major autoantigen in type 1 diabetes. Recent studies showed that targeted disruption of the IA-2 gene in mice resulted in impairment of insulin secretion and glucose intolerance. Insulin homeostasis, however, is a complex process involving a cascade of regulatory factors, and IA-2 is widely expressed in neuroendocrine cells throughout the body. Consequently, it is uncertain whether the impairment of insulin secretion in IA-2 knockout mice is a direct result of the knockout of IA-2 in beta cells or to counter regulatory alterations resulting from IA-2 knockout in other neuroendocrine cells. To define the function of IA-2, we studied the secretion of insulin in a single cell type, MIN-6, by overexpressing and knocking down IA-2. Our experiments showed that overexpression of IA-2 resulted in a 6-fold increase in glucose- or K+-induced insulin secretion and a approximately 3-fold increase in the number of secretory vesicles and the insulin content of cells. In contrast, knockdown of endogenous IA-2 by short interfering RNA resulted in nearly a complete loss of glucose-induced insulin secretion and a 50% decrease in basal insulin release. The half-life of insulin in cells overexpressing IA-2 was nearly twice as great as that in mock-transfected cells, suggesting that IA-2 was stabilizing the insulin-containing vesicles. From these results we conclude that in beta cells, IA-2 is an important regulator of dense core vesicle number and glucose-induced and basal insulin secretion.

Acute tumor necrosis factor alpha signaling via NADPH oxidase in microvascular endothelial cells: role of p47phox phosphorylation and binding to TRAF4.

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) receptor-associated factors (TRAFs) play important roles in TNF-alpha signaling by interacting with downstream signaling molecules, e.g., mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). However, TNF-alpha also signals through reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent pathways. The interrelationship between these pathways is unclear; however, a recent study suggested that TRAF4 could bind to the NADPH oxidase subunit p47phox. Here, we investigated the potential interaction between p47phox phosphorylation and TRAF4 binding and their relative roles in acute TNF-alpha signaling. Exposure of human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) to TNF-alpha (100 U/ml; 1 to 60 min) induced rapid (within 5 min) p47phox phosphorylation. This was paralleled by a 2.7- +/- 0.5-fold increase in p47phox-TRAF4 association, membrane translocation of p47phox-TRAF4, a 2.3- +/- 0.4-fold increase in p47phox-p22phox complex formation, and a 3.2- +/- 0.2-fold increase in NADPH-dependent O2- production (all P < 0.05). TRAF4-p47phox binding was accompanied by a progressive increase in extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) and p38(MAPK) activation, which was inhibited by an O2- scavenger, tiron. TRAF4 predominantly bound the phosphorylated form of p47phox, in a protein kinase C-dependent process. Knockdown of TRAF4 expression using siRNA had no effect on p47phox phosphorylation or binding to p22phox but inhibited TNF-alpha-induced ERK1/2 activation. In coronary microvascular EC from p47phox-/- mice, TNF-alpha-induced NADPH oxidase activation, ERK1/2 activation, and cell surface intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) expression were all inhibited. Thus, both p47phox phosphorylation and TRAF4 are required for acute TNF-alpha signaling. The increased binding between p47phox and TRAF4 that occurs after p47phox phosphorylation could serve to spatially confine ROS generation from NADPH oxidase and subsequent MAPK activation and cell surface ICAM-1 expression in EC.