Identifying ideal product composition of chocolate-flavored milk using preference mapping.

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends cutting down added sugar in processed foods and beverages. There is a growing concern for increased calorie intake from added sugar in flavored milk. To understand how to effectively reduce added sugar in flavored milk, the influence of other nutritional components such as percentage of fat, protein, and salt need to be accounted for as they are the determinants for color, flavor and mouthfeel attributes that ultimately influence consumer liking. Therefore, this study aims to identify the ideal product composition of commercial chocolate flavored milk samples and to link the existing variations to consumers' liking data using External Preference Mapping (EPM). Thirty-four commercial chocolate milk samples systematically varying in compositional profile (sugar, fat, protein, salt, stabilizer and sweetener) were analysed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with a subset of 10 chocolate milk samples varying in product composition (fat, protein, salt and sugar) selected for consumer evaluation. Consumers (n = 235) evaluated these 10 chocolate milk samples for overall liking using a 9-point hedonic scale. Significant differences (p < 0.0001) were observed in the hedonic ratings of these 10 samples, and consumers were grouped into four clusters using Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA), each cluster showing a preference for different products. EPM was applied to the consumer liking data to reveal the ideal product composition of chocolate milk acceptability. Chocolate milk samples 4 (OAK chocolate) and 6 (OAK thick death by chocolate) with 10.6%-10.9% sugar, 3.4%-3.5% fat, 3.5%-3.6% protein and 0.05% salt were identified to have the highest appeal satisfying between 70% and 80% of consumers assessed. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The results of this research could be applied for the reformulation of a new product to ensure that the product composition including sugar concentration is critical to influencing the sensory perception and consumer acceptance of the product. In addition, the results provide an ideal product composition along with sugar concentration that can be used as a standard or control mark for sugar reduction target.

Sugar Reduction in Dairy Food: An Overview with Flavoured Milk as an Example.

Owing to the public health concern associated with the consumption of added sugar, the World Health Organization recommends cutting down sugar in processed foods. Furthermore, due to the growing concern of increased calorie intake from added sugar in sweetened dairy foods, the present review provides an overview of different types and functions of sugar, various sugar reduction strategies, and current trends in the use of sweeteners for sugar reduction in dairy food, taking flavoured milk as a central theme where possible to explore the aforementioned aspects. The strength and uniqueness of this review are that it brings together all the information on the available types of sugar and sugar reduction strategies and explores the current trends that could be applied for reducing sugar in dairy foods without much impact on consumer acceptance. Among different strategies for sugar reduction, the use of natural non-nutritive sweeteners (NNSs), has received much attention due to consumer demand for natural ingredients. Sweetness imparted by sugar can be replaced by natural NNSs, however, sugar provides more than just sweetness to flavoured milk. Sugar reduction involves multiple technical challenges to maintain the sensory properties of the product, as well as to maintain consumer acceptance. Because no single sugar has a sensory profile that matches sucrose, the use of two or more natural NNSs could be an option for food industries to reduce sugar using a holistic approach rather than a single sugar reduction strategy. Therefore, achieving even a small sugar reduction can significantly improve the diet and health of an individual.

Association between food liking and the dietary quality in Australian young adults.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: An individual's liking for food maybe associated with food consumption. This study investigates the association between food liking and dietary quality in Australian young adults. METHODS AND STUDY DESIGN: Food liking and food frequency data were collected via an online Food Liking Questionnaire (FLQ) and Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). Food liking scores were calculated for groupings of foods. FFQ Food intake data was used to calculate diet quality using a 13 item Dietary Guideline Index (DGI). The relationship between food liking and DGI was assessed using linear regression models and the difference was assessed using an independent sample t-test and One-way ANOVA. RESULTS: Data were available from n=2,535 participants (BMI=24 (SD 3.74), age=21.9 (SD 5.05) years, female=77.1%). Liking for grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy, plant-based protein, was weakly positively associated with diet quality. Liking for animal-based protein, fat and oil, sweet food, and salty food, was weakly negatively associated with diet quality. Liking for grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy, plant-based protein and healthy foods increased across increasing DGI tertiles, and liking for animalbased protein, fat and oil, sweet food, salty food and discretionary foods decreased across increasing DGI tertiles. CONCLUSIONS: The results were logical with increased liking for healthy or discretionary foods linked with increased consumption of those foods. The results reinforce the strategy to introduce a variety of healthy food groups early in life to initiate flavour-nutrient learning and increase liking for healthy foods.

The relationship between culture, food liking, and body mass index in Australian and Thai young adults.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: An individual's liking of food may be associated with Body Mass Index (BMI) due to its subsequent impact on food consumption. This study investigates the association between food liking and BMI in young adults from Australia and Thailand. METHODS AND STUDY DESIGN: Food liking data were collected via a validated online Food Liking Questionnaire (FLQ). Food liking scores were calculated for overall liking of groupings of foods: grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy, animal protein, plant-based protein, fat and oil, sweet food, salty food, and alcohol. The relationship between food liking and BMI (calculated from self-reported height and weight) was assessed using linear regression models including country and gender, and mean differences were assessed using independent sample t-test. RESULTS: Data were available from n=4,173 participants (BMI=22.25 (SD 4.18), age=20.6 (SD 4.22) years, female=71.6%, Thai=52.5%). There were significant differences of food liking between countries for all of food groups (p<0.01) except for animal-based protein and plantbased protein liking. BMI was positively, but weakly, associated with liking of animal-based protein (ß=0.20 [0.12, 0.28], p<0.001), and alcohol (ß=0.08 [0.02, 0.13], p<0.01) and negatively associated with plant-based protein (ß=-0.09 [-0.18, -0.01], p<0.05). There was significant difference of food liking between weight status for all of food groups. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports only minor associations between food liking and BMI, but cultural and gender variation in liking was evident.

Assessing Food Liking: Comparison of Food Liking Questionnaires and Direct Food Tasting in Two Cultures.

Food liking can be directly measured in specialised sensory testing facilities; however, this method is not feasible for large population samples. The aim of the study was to compare a Food Liking Questionnaire (FLQ) against lab-based sensory testing in two countries. The study was conducted with 70 Australian and Thai participants (35 Australian, 35 Thai, mean (SD) age 19 (3.01) years, 51% men). Participants completed a FLQ (consisting of 73 food items Australia, 89 Thai) and then, after tasting the food, rated their liking of a selection of 10 commercially available food items using a nine-point hedonic scale. Both tasks were completed on the same day and were repeated one week later. The reliability of and a comparison between methods was determined using Intra-Class Correlation Coefficients (ICC), and the difference was assessed using an independent sample t-test. The results indicate that the test-retest reliability of FLQ and the laboratory-based liking assessment range was moderate (0.40⁻0.59) to excellent (0.75⁻1.00). There were significant differences for the FLQ and the laboratory-based liking assessment between countries for three food items: soft drink, instant vegetable soup, and broccoli (p < 0.01). However, the data produced from the FLQ reflects the laboratory-based liking assessment. Therefore, it provides representative liking data in large population-based studies including cross-cultural studies.

A Comparison of Temporal Dominance of Sensation (TDS) and Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA™) to Identify Flavors in Strawberries.

Temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) is a rapid descriptive method that offers a different magnitude of information to traditional descriptive analysis methodologies. This methodology considers the dynamic nature of eating, assessing sensory perception of foods as they change throughout the eating event. Limited research has applied the TDS methodology to strawberries and subsequently validated the results against Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA™). The aim of this research is to compare the TDS methodology using an untrained consumer panel to the results obtained via QDA™ with a trained sensory panel. The trained panelists (n = 12, minimum 60 hr each panelist) were provided with six strawberry samples (three cultivars at two maturation levels) and applied QDA™ techniques to profile each strawberry sample. Untrained consumers (n = 103) were provided with six strawberry samples (three cultivars at two maturation levels) and required to use TDS methodology to assess the dominant sensations for each sample as they change over time. Results revealed moderately comparable product configurations produced via TDS in comparison to QDA™ (RV coefficient = 0.559), as well as similar application of the sweet attribute (correlation coefficient of 0.895 at first bite). The TDS methodology however was not in agreement with the QDA™ methodology regarding more complex flavor terms. These findings support the notion that the lack of training on the definition of terms, together with the limitations of the methodology to ignore all attributes other than those dominant, provide a different magnitude of information than the QDA™ methodology. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: A comparison of TDS to traditional descriptive analysis indicate that TDS provides additional information to QDA™ regarding the lingering component of eating. The QDA™ results however provide more precise detail regarding singular attributes. Therefore, the TDS methodology has an application in industry when it is important to understand the lingering profile of products. However, this methodology should not be employed as a replacement to traditional descriptive analysis methods.

Identifying Key Flavors in Strawberries Driving Liking via Internal and External Preference Mapping.

Australian consumers desire the development of a more flavorsome Australian strawberry cultivar. To aid in the development of well-liked strawberries, the attributes driving liking need to be identified. The objective of this research is to apply Preference Mapping (PM) techniques to the descriptive profile of commercial and newly bred strawberry cultivars, together with consumer preference data to determine the flavors contributing to liking. A trained sensory panel (n = 12) used Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA®) methodology to evaluate two appearance, seven aroma, five texture, 10 flavor and 10 aftertaste attributes of three commercial strawberry cultivars and six elite breeding lines grown in Victoria, Australia. Strawberry consumers (n = 150) assessed their liking of the same strawberry cultivars. QDA® significantly discriminated strawberries on 28 of the 34 sensory attributes. There were significant differences in hedonic ratings of strawberries (F(8,714) = 11.5, P = 0.0001), with Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) identifying three consumer clusters each displaying differing patterns of preference. Internal and external PM techniques were applied to the data to identify the attributes driving consumer acceptability. Sweet, berry, caramel, fruity and floral attributes were identified as most contributing to liking. Sour, citrus, green, astringent, firm and gritty attributes were conversely associated with a reduction in consumer liking. Elite Lines 2 and 6 have been identified as having the broadest appeal, satisfying between 60% and 70% of consumers in the population assessed, thus the introduction of these cultivars should satisfy the largest group of consumers in the Australian market. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The results of this research could be applied to breeding programs, to ensure newly bred cultivars express characteristics that were identified as well-liked amongst consumers. In addition, this research provides evidence for marketing strawberries by cultivar, to assist consumers in identifying those strawberries for which they have a preference.

The mouthfeel of white wine.

White wine mouthfeel which encompasses the tactile, chemosensory and taste attributes of perceived viscosity, astringency, hotness and bitterness is increasingly being recognized as an important component of overall white wine quality. This review summarizes the physiological basis for the perception of white wine mouthfeel and the direct and interactive effects of white wine composition, specifically those of low molecular weight phenolic compounds, polysaccharides, pH, ethanol, glycerol, dissolved carbon dioxide, and peptides. Ethyl alcohol concentration and pH play a direct role in determining most aspects of mouthfeel perception, and provide an overall framework on which the other minor wine components can interact to influence white wine mouthfeel. Phenolic compounds broadly impact on the mouthfeel by contributing to its viscosity, astringency, hotness and bitterness. Their breadth of influence likely results from their structural diversity which would allow them to activate multiple sensory mechanisms involved in mouthfeel perception. Conversely, polysaccharides have a small modulating effect on astringency and hotness perception, and glycerol does not affect perceived viscosity within the narrow concentration range found in white wine. Many of the major sensory attributes that contribute to the overall impression of mouthfeel are elicited by more than one class compound suggesting that different physiological mechanisms may be involved in the construct of mouthfeel percepts.

The Health Benefiting Mechanisms of Virgin Olive Oil Phenolic Compounds.

Virgin olive oil (VOO) is credited as being one of the many healthful components associated with the Mediterranean diet. Mediterranean populations experience reduced incidence of chronic inflammatory disease states and VOO is readily consumed as part of an everyday Mediterranean dietary pattern. VOO is rich in phenolic compounds and the health promoting benefits of these phenolics are now established. Recent studies have highlighted the biological properties of VOO phenolic compounds elucidating their anti-inflammatory activities. This paper will review current knowledge on the anti-inflammatory and nutrigenomic, chemoprotective and anti-atherosclerotic activities of VOO phenolics. In addition the concentration, metabolism and bioavailability of specific phenolic compounds will be discussed. The evidence presented in the review concludes that oleurepein, hydroxytyrosol and oleocanthal have potent pharmacological activities in vitro and in vivo; however, intervention studies with biologically relevant concentrations of these phenolic compounds are required.

The Relationships Between Common Measurements of Taste Function.

BACKGROUND: There are five common, independent measures used to characterize taste function in humans: detection and recognition thresholds (DT and RT), suprathreshold intensity ratings of prototypical tastants, propylthiouracil (PROP) bitterness intensity, and fungiform papillae (FP) number. METHODS: We employed all five methods to assess taste function of 65 women (21.5 ± 4 years, BMI 22.3 ± 2.8 kg/m2). Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated between the different measures. RESULTS: The DT and RT were positively correlated for sweet, bitter, sour, and umami (p < 0.05), but not for salt. The DT or RT did not correlate with suprathreshold intensity ratings, except for umami (suprathreshold intensity and RT: r = -0.32, p = 0.009). FP number did not correlate with any measurement of taste function. PROP bitterness intensity ratings did not correlate with any measurement of taste function, except for suprathreshold ratings for saltiness (r = 0.26, p = 0.033). CONCLUSION: As most of the individual measures of taste function did not correlate with each other, with exception of the two threshold measures, we conclude that there are multiple perceptual phases of taste, with no single measure able to represent the sense of taste globally.

Micronutrient supplement use and diet quality in university students.

Many national and international public health organisations recommend achieving nutrient adequacy through consumption of a wide variety of nutritious foods. Despite this, dietary supplement sales continue to increase. Understanding the characteristics of micronutrient supplement users and the relationship with diet quality can help develop effective public health interventions to reduce unnecessary consumption of vitamin and mineral supplements. Participants (n=1306) were a convenience sample of students studying first year food and nutrition. Data was collected via a Food and Diet Questionnaire (FDQ) and a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). Supplement users were defined as participants who indicated consuming any listed supplement as frequently as once a month or more. Diet quality was assessed using a Dietary Guideline Index (DGI) score. Prevalence of supplement use was high in this study population with 56% of participants reporting supplement use; the most popular supplements consumed were multivitamins (28%) and vitamin C (28%). A higher DGI score was significantly associated with an increased likelihood of supplement use (mean: 105±18 vs. 109±17, p=0.001). Micronutrient supplement use was associated with a higher DGI score, suggesting that supplements are more likely to be used by those who are less likely to require them.

The association between perceived sweetness intensity and dietary intake in young adults.

Individual differences in taste perception may influence dietary habits, nutritional status, and ultimately nutrition-related chronic disease risk. Individual differences in sweetness intensity perception and the relationship between perceived sweetness intensity, food behaviors, and dietary intake was investigated in 85 adults. Subjects (body mass index [BMI]= 21 ± 3, 21 ± 4 y) completed a food and diet questionnaire, food variety survey, 2 24-h food records, and a perceived sweetness intensity measurement using the general labeled magnitude scale (gLMS). There was interindividual variation in perceived sweetness intensity (0 to 34 gLMS units, mean 10 ± 7). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed no difference between perceived sweetness intensity and degree of importance placed on not adding sugar to tea or coffee (P = 0.2) and the degree of importance placed on avoiding sugar-sweetened or fizzy drinks (P = 1.0). Independent t-test analysis revealed no significant association between perceived sweetness intensity and the food variety measure for sugar and confectionary intake (P = 0.6) and selected fruit and vegetable intake (P = 0.1 to 0.9). One-way ANOVA also demonstrated no difference between tertiles of sweetness intensity and BMI (P = 0.1), age (P = 0.3), and food variety score (P = 0.5). No correlation was observed with regards to perceived sweetness intensity and mean total energy (kJ) intake (r = 0.05, P = 0.7), percent energy from total fat, saturated fat, protein, carbohydrate, and grams of fiber (r =-0.1 to 0.1, P = 0.2 to 0.8) and also for intake of the micronutrients: folate, magnesium, calcium, iron, and zinc (r = 0.1 to 0.2, P = 0.1 to 0.4). Only modest correlations were observed between sodium (r = 0.3, P < 0.05), vitamin C (r = 0.3, P < 0.05), and potassium (r = 0.2, P < 0.0) intake and perceived sweetness intensity. Overall, perceived sweetness intensity does not appear to play a role in food behaviors relating to sugar consumption and dietary intake in adults.

Biological activities of phenolic compounds present in virgin olive oil.

The Mediterranean diet is associated with a lower incidence of atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative diseases and certain types of cancer. The apparent health benefits have been partially ascribed to the dietary consumption of virgin olive oil by Mediterranean populations. Much research has focused on the biologically active phenolic compounds naturally present in virgin olive oils to aid in explaining reduced mortality and morbidity experienced by people consuming a traditional Mediterranean diet. Studies (human, animal, in vivo and in vitro) have demonstrated that olive oil phenolic compounds have positive effects on certain physiological parameters, such as plasma lipoproteins, oxidative damage, inflammatory markers, platelet and cellular function, antimicrobial activity and bone health. This paper summarizes current knowledge on the bioavailability and biological activities of olive oil phenolic compounds.

Sensory characterization of the irritant properties of oleocanthal, a natural anti-inflammatory agent in extra virgin olive oils.

Oleocanthal is an olive oil phenolic possessing anti-inflammatory activity. Anecdotal evidence suggests that oleocanthal elicits a stinging sensation felt only at the back of the throat (oropharynx). Due to this compound possessing potentially health-benefiting properties, investigation into the sensory aspects of oleocanthal is warranted to aid in future research. The important link between the perceptual aspects of oleocanthal and health benefits is the notion that variation in sensitivity to oleocanthal irritation may relate to potential differences in sensitivity to the pharmacologic action of this compound. The current study assessed the unique irritant attributes of oleocanthal including its location of irritation, temporal profile, and individual differences in the perceived irritation. We show that the irritation elicited by oleocanthal was localized to the oropharynx (P < 0.001) with little or no irritation in the anterior oral cavity. Peak irritation was perceived 15 s postexposure and lasted over 180 s. Oleocanthal irritation was more variable among individuals compared with the irritation elicited by CO(2) and the sweetness of sucrose. There was no correlation between intensity ratings of oleocanthal and CO(2) and oleocanthal and sucrose (r = -0.15, n = 50, P = 0.92 and r = 0.17, n = 84, P = 0.12, respectively), suggesting that independent mechanisms underlie the irritation of CO(2) and oleocanthal. The unusual spatial localization and independence of acid (CO(2)) sensations suggest that distinct nociceptors for oleocanthal are located in the oropharyngeal region of the oral cavity.

Influence of heat on biological activity and concentration of oleocanthal--a natural anti-inflammatory agent in virgin olive oil.

The olive oil phenolic oleocanthal is a natural nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory compound that irritates the oral pharynx in a dose-dependent manner. It has been proposed that the biological activity of oleocanthal is partially responsible for the beneficial health effects of the Mediterranean diet. Virgin olive oil containing oleocanthal is often added as an ingredient in a number of cooked dishes, and therefore it is of great importance to understand how best to preserve the putative health-promoting benefits of this compound, as olive oil phenolics are subject to degradation upon heating in general. One extra virgin olive oil containing 53.9 mg/kg oleocanthal was heated at various temperatures (100, 170, and 240 degrees C) for set time periods (0, 1, 5, 20, 60, and 90 min). Oleocanthal concentrations were quantified using HPLC, and its biological activity was determined with a taste bioassay measuring the intensity of throat irritation. Results demonstrated that oleocanthal was heat stable compared with other olive oil phenolics, with a maximum loss of 16% as determined by HPLC analysis. However, there was a significant decrease of up to 31% (p < 0.05) in the biological activity of oleocanthal as determined by the taste bioassay. Although there was minimal degradation of oleocanthal concentration, there was a significant decrease in the biological activity of oleocanthal upon extended heating time, indicating a possible loss of the putative health -benefiting properties of oleocanthal. Alternatively, the difference in the concentration and biological activity of oleocanthal after heat treatment could be a result of an oleocanthal antagonist forming, decreasing or masking the biological activity of oleocanthal.

Chemistry and health of olive oil phenolics.

The Mediterranean diet is associated with a lower incidence of atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease, and certain types of cancer. The apparent health benefits have been partially attributed to the dietary consumption of virgin olive oil by Mediterranean populations. Most recent interest has focused on the biologically active phenolic compounds naturally present in virgin olive oils. Studies (human, animal, in vivo and in vitro) have shown that olive oil phenolics have positive effects on certain physiological parameters, such as plasma lipoproteins, oxidative damage, inflammatory markers, platelet and cellular function, and antimicrobial activity. Presumably, regular dietary consumption of virgin olive oil containing phenolic compounds manifests in health benefits associated with a Mediterranean diet. This paper summarizes current knowledge on the physiological effects of olive oil phenolics. Moreover, a number of factors have the ability to affect phenolic concentrations in virgin olive oil, so it is of great importance to understand these factors in order to preserve the essential health promoting benefits of olive oil phenolic compounds.