Primary LYmphedema Multidisciplinary Approach in Patients Affected by Primary Lower Extremity Lymphedema.

Background: Primary lymphedema is a chronic condition caused by a developmental abnormality of the lymphatic system, leading to its malfunction. Various surgical options, including physiologic and excisional procedures, have been proposed. The aim of this study was to present a comprehensive algorithm for the treatment of primary lower extremity lymphedema: the Primary LYmphedema Multidisciplinary Approach (P-LYMA). Methods: Nineteen patients were treated following the P-LYMA protocol. Patients underwent pre- and postoperative complex decongestive therapy (CDT). A variety of physiologic and excisional procedures were performed, either independently or in combination. The primary outcome was to assess the circumferential reduction rate (CRR). The Lymphedema Quality of Life Score (LeQOLiS), reduction in the number of cellulitis episodes, and complications were recorded. Results: The mean CRR was 73 ± 20% at twelve months postoperatively. The frequency of cellulitis episodes per year decreased from a mean of 1.9 ± 0.8 preoperatively to 0.4 ± 0.6 during follow-up. Two patients experienced minor complications. The mean hospitalization time was 5 days. Patients' quality of life, as measured by the LeQOLiS, significantly improved from 70.4 ± 12 preoperatively to 24 ± 14 at twelve months postoperatively. Conclusions: The P-LYMA algorithm maximizes surgical outcomes and improves the quality of life in patients with primary lymphedema. CDT is essential for optimizing results.

Innervated breast reconstruction: a narrative review of neurotization techniques and outcomes.

Background and Objective: While significant sensation recovery improvements in neurotized breasts following reconstruction have been reported, sensation testing methods and surgical techniques have been widely variable. This narrative review aims to summarize available literature on current neurotization practices and sensory recovery outcomes in patients undergoing innervated breast reconstruction. Methods: A comprehensive literature search of PubMed Medline, Web of Science, and Embase was conducted to identify all studies reporting outcomes of neurotization in breast reconstruction surgeries. Data analyzed included operative times, neurotization techniques, sensory outcomes, and methods as well as patient reported outcomes. Key Content and Findings: Despite the heterogeneity of various studies reviewed, all forms of neurotization achieved earlier and superior sensory recovery throughout the reconstructed breast skin compared to non-innervated breasts. In absence of randomized controlled trials or high-quality comparative studies, further evidence is required to objectively confirm this technique offers better sensory recovery. Conclusions: Neurotization at the time of breast reconstruction may lead to improved sensation and patient reported outcomes delineating improved quality of life compared to non-innervated breasts. Future studies need to standardize the way that breast sensation is measured and determine pre-operative variables leading to expected changes in final sensation recovery to help manage surgical outcome expectations of both the surgeon and the patient.

The Value of a Co-surgeon in Microvascular Breast Reconstruction: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Using a co-surgeon model has been suggested to improve perioperative outcomes and reduce the risk of complications. Therefore, we evaluated if a co-surgeon model compared with a single microsurgeon model could decrease the surgical time, length of stay, rate of complications, and healthcare-associated costs in adult patients undergoing microvascular breast reconstruction (MBR). A comprehensive search was performed across PubMed MEDLINE, Embase, and Web of Science. Studies evaluating the perioperative outcomes and complications of MBR using a single-surgeon model and co-surgeon model were included. A random-effects model was fitted to the data. Seven retrospective comparative studies were included. Ultimately, 1411 patients (48.23%) underwent MBR using a single-surgeon model, representing 2339 flaps (48.42%). On the other hand, 1514 patients (51.77%) underwent MBR using a co-surgeon model, representing 2492 flaps (51.58%). The surgical time was significantly reduced using a co-surgeon model in all studies compared with a single-surgeon model. The length of stay was reduced using a co-surgeon model compared with a single-surgeon model in all but one study. The log odds ratio (log-OR) of recipient site infection (log-OR = -0.227; P = 0.6509), wound disruption (log-OR = -0.012; P = 0.9735), hematoma (log-OR = 0.061; P = 0.8683), and seroma (log-OR = -0.742; P = 0.1106) did not significantly decrease with the incorporation of a co-surgeon compared with a single-surgeon model. Incorporating a co-surgeon model for MBR has minimal impact on the rates of surgical site complications compared with a single-surgeon model. However, a co-surgeon optimized efficacy and reduced the surgical time and length of stay.

Efficacy of Combined Spinal-Epidural Anesthesia for Lower Extremity Microvascular Reconstruction.

INTRODUCTION: Some surgeons have raised concerns regarding the sympathectomy-like effect of epidural anesthesia during lower limb microvascular reconstruction. The combined spinal-epidural (CSE) anesthetic technique incorporates several benefits of spinal and epidural techniques in a single approach. The aim of this study was to analyze the postoperative outcomes of patients undergoing soft-tissue reconstruction of the lower limb by implementing the CSE anesthesia approach. METHODS: We reviewed medical records from patients who underwent lower limb reconstructive procedures under CSE anesthesia with free tissue transfer from January 2017 to December 2020. We evaluated the postoperative outcomes. RESULTS: Thirty-eight patients underwent microvascular reconstructive procedures of the lower extremity over the study period. The average age and BMI were 38.4-year and 28 kg/m2. All patients only had one postoperative rescue dose with epidural anesthesia. The most common type of flap used was the anterolateral thigh flap (53%). The average splinting time and length of stay (LoS) were 8.4 days and 18.4 days, respectively. Donor-site complications included wound dehiscence (3%) and surgical site infection (3%). Recipient-site complications included partial flap loss (8%) and total flap loss (10%). No pro re nata morphine analgesia was used. Tramadol and/or ketoprofen were administered for postoperative analgesia. The average time to start physiotherapy and to resume daily activities were 10 days and 29 days, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The CSE anesthesia for microvascular reconstruction of the lower limb demonstrated a similar success rate compared to historical records. CSE provided adequate pain management and none of the patients required postoperative monitoring in the ICU.

The Limited Coverage of Facial Feminization Surgery in the United States: A Literature Review of Policy Constraints and Implications.

There is a literature gap regarding facial feminization surgery (FFS) access and coverage. Our goal is to compile information from previous studies and assess the current policy landscape for these surgeries in the US. We also explored why some policies do not cover them, identify states with better coverage, and determine the most covered procedures. PubMed, Medline, Embase, and Scopus were searched for studies that reviewed policies on FFS coverage. Studies on surgical techniques or other gender-affirming surgeries (GASs) that did not involve FFS were excluded. Seven studies were included for analysis. In 2014, the Department of Human Health Services (HHS) lifted the transgender exclusion policy, leading to an increase in policies regarding GASs for both private and state insurance. However, there are differences in medical necessity requirements among policies, which may not align with the World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH) criteria. States that prohibit exclusion tend to offer better coverage for FFS. These states are mainly located in the western and northeast regions, whereas states in the southern and middle east regions have less coverage. Among the procedures, chondrolaryngoplasty is the most covered, while facial and cervical rhytidectomy are the least covered. To enhance transgender care, it is crucial to reach a consensus on how to offer coverage for facial feminization surgery. However, there is a lack of adequate research on this topic, and there is a need for resources and tools to assess the results of FFS procedures. One significant constraint of this study is that it does not provide a systematic review of the literature.

Cross-leg free flaps and cross-leg vascular cable bridge flaps for lower limb salvage: experience before and after COVID-19.

Background: Previous reports have evidenced the disruptive effect of the COVID-19 in microsurgical and reconstructive departments. We report our experience with cross-leg free flaps and (CLFF) and cross-leg vascular cable bridge flaps (CLVCBF) for lower limb salvage, technical consideration to decrease morbidity, and some structural modifications to our protocols for standard of care adapted to the COVID-19. Methods: We retrospectively included consecutive patients undergoing reconstruction with CLFFs and CLVCBFs for lower limb salvage from January 2003 to May 2022. We extracted data on baseline demographic characteristics, mechanism of trauma, and surgical outcomes. Results: Twenty-four patients were included, 11 (45.8%) underwent reconstruction with CLFF while 13 had CLVCBFs (54.2%). Fifteen patients (62.5%) underwent lower limb reconstruction under general anesthesia while 9 (37.5%) had combined spinal-epidural anesthesia. During COVID-19 pandemic, six CLFF cases were performed under S-E (25%). The average time for pedicle transection of muscle CLFFs and muscle CLVCBFs was comparable between groups (60 days versus 62 days, p = 0.864). A significantly shorter average time was evidenced for pedicle division of fasciocutaneous flaps in the CLFF group when compared to CLVCBFs (45 days versus 59 days, p = 0.002). Conclusions: In selected patients, CLFFs and CLVCBFs offer an optimal alternative for lower limb salvage using recipient vessels out of the zone of injury from the contralateral limb. Modification in the surgical protocols can decrease improve resource allocation in the setting of severely ill patients during COVID-19.Level of evidence: Level III, Therapeutic.

Lymph Node Transfer and Neolymphangiogenesis: From Theory to Evidence.

BACKGROUND: Vascularized lymph node transfer (VLNT) has proven to be a valuable treatment for patients with advanced stages of lymphedema. Although spontaneous neolymphangiogenesis has been advocated to explain the positive effects of VLNT, there is still a lack of supportive biological evidence. The aim of this study was to demonstrate the postoperative formation of new lymphatic vessels using histologic skin sections from the lymphedematous limb. METHODS: Patients with lymphedema of the extremities who had undergone gastroepiploic vascularized lymph node flap surgery between January of 2016 and December of 2018 were identified. Full-thickness 6-mm skin-punch biopsy specimens were obtained from patients at identical sites of the lymphedematous limb during the VLNT surgical procedure (T0) and 1 year later (T1). The histologic samples were immunostained with anti-podoplanin/gp36 antibody. RESULTS: A total of 14 patients with lymph node transfer were included. At the 12-month follow-up, the mean circumference reduction rate was 44.3 ± 4.4 at the above-elbow/above-knee level and 60.9 ± 7 at the below-elbow/below-knee level. Podoplanin expression values were, on average, 7.92 ± 1.77 vessels/mm 2 at T0 and 11.79 ± 3.38 vessels/mm 2 at T1. The difference between preoperative and postoperative values was statistically significant ( P = 0.0008). CONCLUSION: This study provides anatomic evidence that a neolymphangiogenic process is induced by the VLNT procedure because new functional lymphatic vessels can be detected in close proximity to the transferred lymph nodes. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, IV.

Experimental Models and Practical Simulators for Supermicrosurgery: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Supermicrosurgical simulators and experimental models promote test viability, a faster learning curve, technical innovations, and improvements of the surgical dexterities. The authors aimed to present a systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical experimental models and simulation platforms used for supermicrosurgery. METHODS: An electronic search was conducted across the PubMed MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, and Scopus databases in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement. Data collection included the types of experimental models and outcomes. Pooled estimates were calculated with a random-effect meta-analysis using the DerSimonian-Laird model. RESULTS: Thirty-eight articles were incorporated in the qualitative synthesis. Twenty-three articles reported the use of in vivo models (60.5%), 12 used ex vivo models (31.5%), and three used synthetic models (7.9%). The superficial inferior epigastric system of rats was the most common in vivo model, whereas chicken wings and hindlimbs were the most common methods used in ex vivo models. The most common methods to evaluate patency of anastomoses were gross inspection, passage of nylon thread into the lumen, and intravascular flow of an injected dye. Nineteen studies were incorporated in the meta-analysis. The overall rate of a successful anastomosis was 94.9% (95% CI, 92.3 to 97.5%). The success rate of in vivo models using rats was 92.5% (95% CI, 88.8 to 96.3%). The success rate of ex vivo models was 97.7% (95% CI, 94.6 to >99%). CONCLUSION: Simulators that have high fidelity concerning the dissection of the vascular pedicle, flap elevation, supermicrovascular anastomosis, and adequate assessment of a successful anastomosis possess adequate predictive validation to evaluate and simulate the supermicrosurgical technique. CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT: Supermicrosurgical simulators are designed to reproduce specific clinical scenarios; therefore, these should be implemented sequentially to develop specific competencies. Supermicrosurgical models must be regarded as mutually inclusive learning platforms to optimize the learning curve.

Inexpensive Materials for Microsurgery in Middle- and Low-Income Countries.

With the continuous incorporation of new technologies and advancements in surgical technique, microsurgical procedures around the world have generated a higher success rate and innovative procedures are now possible. In this setting, limitations regarding accessibility and acquisition of medical resources and equipment for these types of operations may be difficult in developing countries. We believe the dexterities of surgeons go beyond the surgical technique, meaning that we are able to use everyday materials to re-create affordable solutions that can be used during surgery in a safe way. This manuscript presents our experience with different surgical instruments and gadgets, developed out of necessity, to improve microsurgical interventions in developing countries.

The medial sural artery perforator flap for retromolar trigone reconstruction: A multicenter case series.

BACKGROUND: Retromolar trigone (RMT) cancer is a rare malignancy, which develops in a narrow area of the oral cavity. Surgical intervention requires wide excision and appropriate reconstruction usually with a free tissue transfer. Little has been published regarding the ideal microvascular reconstruction, mainly focusing on radial forearm and anterolateral thigh free flap. The medial sural artery perforator flap (MSAP) is not new for head and neck reconstruction but its use for RMT reconstruction has not been previously explored. The purpose of the study is to present a multicentric case series investigating the reliability of MSAP flap for RMT reconstruction. METHODS: The study is designed as a retrospective case series. All patients diagnosed with RMT cancer and undergone surgical resection and immediate reconstruction with a MSAP flap between February 2016 and March 2020 were identified. Patients' demographics and surgical details were collected. Functional results were evaluated using the Head and Neck Module of the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer at 12 months of follow-up. A total of 34 patients with a mean age of 58 years were included in the study. An average defect size of 31.5 cm2 was observed after RMT tumor resection. RESULTS: The MSAP flaps' average dimensions were 11 ± 3.1 cm in length and 4.7 ± 1.6 cm in width with a mean thickness of 1.4 ± 0.8 cm. No flap complications were observed in 28 cases; four patients developed an orocutaneous fistula. One patient needed surgical revision for venous congestion while only one case of flap failure was observed. At 12 months of follow-up, 87% of the patient cohort had normal, understandable speech. No patient experienced complete loss of swallowing. Results of the H&N35 module showed a significative postoperative improvement in mouth soreness, mouth opening and social (p < .05*). No patient complained difficulty in motility at the donor site. CONCLUSIONS: The MSAP flap appears to be appropriate for RMT reconstruction and could be considered the workhorse for small to medium size defect of RTM region. It has a long pedicle of matching caliber and provides adequate tissue volume with minimal donor site morbidity.

The breast cancer-related lymphedema multidisciplinary approach: Algorithm for conservative and multimodal surgical treatment.

BACKGROUND: Multiple surgical alternatives are available to treat breast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL) providing a variable spectrum of outcomes. This study aimed to present the breast cancer-related lymphedema multidisciplinary approach (B-LYMA) to systematically treat BCRL. METHODS: Seventy-eight patients presenting with BCRL between 2017 and 2021 were included. The average age and BMI were 49.4 ± 7.8 years and 28.1 ± 3.5 kg/m2 , respectively. Forty patients had lymphedema ISL stage II (51.3%) and 38 had stage III (48.7%). The mean follow-up was 26.4 months. Treatment was selected according to the B-LYMA algorithm, which aims to combine physiologic and excisional procedures according to the preoperative evaluation of patients. All patients had pre- and postoperative complex decongestive therapy (CDT). RESULTS: Stage II patients were treated with lymphaticovenous anastomosis (LVA) (n = 18), vascularized lymph node transfer (VLNT) (n = 12), and combined DIEP flap and VLNT (n = 10). Stage III patients underwent combined suction-assisted lipectomy (SAL) and LVA (n = 36) or combined SAL and VLNT (n = 2). Circumferential reduction rates (CRR) were comparable between patients treated with LVA (56.5 ± 8.4%), VLNT (54.4 ± 10.2%), and combined VLNT-DIEP flap (56.5 ± 3.9%) (p > .05). In comparison to LVA, VLNT, and combined VLNT-DIEP flap, combined SAL-LVA exhibited higher CRRs (85 ± 10.5%, p < .001). The CRR for combined SAL-VLNT was 75 ± 8.5%. One VLNT failed and minor complications occurred in the combined DIEP-VLNT group. CONCLUSION: The B-LYMA protocol directs the treatment of BCRL according to the lymphatic system's condition. In advanced stages where a single physiologic procedure is not sufficient, additional excisional surgery is implemented. Preoperative and postoperative CDT is mandatory to improve the outcomes.

Management of Facial Second-Degree Burns with Nanocellulose-Based Dressing: A Case Series and Systematic Review.

Previous studies have evaluated the effectiveness of bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) for the treatment of thermal injuries, but the synergic effect of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) with BNC-based dressing for burns still requires further investigation. Herein, we evaluated the effectiveness of BNC dressings in the management of facial burns using PRP. Patients with second-degree facial burns were treated with BNC-based wound dressings after debridement. The burn's depth and epithelialization were evaluated by clinical assessment. Besides using the dressings, we injected PRP subcutaneously into the left-hemifacial burns. The right hemiface was only treated with the dressings. Scar quality was assessed using the Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale (POSAS). Eight patients were included with superficial second-degree burns in 75% of the cases and deep second-degree burns in 25%. Overall, dressings were placed 3.25 days after the initial insult. None of the patients presented with complications after dressing placement. Dressing changes were not required, and no further surgical management was necessary. The mean time for epithelialization was 11.4 days. During subgroup analysis, we did not find a significant difference in the epithelialization time when comparing BNC-based dressings (11.8 days) to BNC-based dressings + PRP (11 days, p = 0.429). The mean POSAS scores from a patient (17 vs. 12.3, p = 0.242) and surgeon (13.5 vs. 11.3, p = 0.26) standpoint were not significantly different using BNC-based dressings versus BNC-based dressings + PRP. Nanocellulose-based dressings are effective to treat second-degree facial burns. It enhances reepithelialization with optimal esthetic outcomes with or without PRP.

Free flap transfer with supermicrosurgical technique for soft tissue reconstruction: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Supermicrosurgery is a technique that allows microsurgeons to accomplish dissections and anastomoses of vessels and nerve fascicles with diameters of ≤0.8 mm. Considering the potential benefits of this technique and limited literature synthesizing the outcomes of supermicrosurgery, the aim of this study was to summarize the available evidence of reconstructive supermicrosurgery and to estimate the success rate. METHODS: We conducted a comprehensive search across PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Web of Science. We included patient-based studies reporting on procedures for soft-tissue reconstruction with free flaps specifying the use of supermicrosurgery. We excluded studies reporting on lymphatic surgery, solely peripheral nerve surgery, and tissue replantation. Our primary endpoint was to calculate the flap success rate. Pooled estimates were calculated using a random-effects meta-analytic model. RESULTS: Forty-seven studies reporting outcomes of 698 flaps were included for qualitative synthesis. Overall, 15.75% of flaps were used for head and neck, 4.4% for breast and trunk, 9.3% for upper limb, and 69.2% for lower limb reconstruction. The most used flap was the superficial circumflex iliac artery perforator flap (41.5%). The overall flap success rate was 96.6% (95%CI 95.2%-98.1%). The cumulative rate of partial flap loss was 3.84% (95%CI 1.8%-5.9%). The overall vascular complication rate resulting in complete or partial flap loss was 5.93% (95%CI 3.5%-8.3%). CONCLUSIONS: Supermicrosurgery displays a high success rate. Further studies are necessary to explore the true potential of supermicrosurgery. This technique reformulates the boundaries of reconstructive surgery due to its extensive application.

Surgical management of breast cancer-related lymphedema: a narrative review of contemporary practices.

Background and Objective: Breast cancer-related lymphedema (BCRL) represents a colossal burden in terms of health and patient-reported outcomes. Surgical management plays a prominent role in the psychological and physical well-being of women suffering from BCRL. Therefore, we performed a narrative review of the current surgical management of BCRL and analyzed the postoperative results. Methods: A literature search was conducted across PubMed MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science from database inception through January 2, 2023. We included English-written studies evaluating postoperative outcomes of lymphatic surgery for the management of BCRL. Key Content and Findings: The surgical management of lymphedema can be classified into two approaches: (I) physiologic procedures and (II) debulking or ablative procedures. While ablative procedures are intended to lessen the symptomatic burden of lymphedema via the removal of pathological tissues, physiologic procedures are performed to restore the abnormal lymphatic flow by creating bypasses into the venous or lymphatic circulation, or by creating new lymphatic connections by means of lymphangiogenesis. Physiologic procedures generate better outcomes in the early stages of lymphedema as there is some residual physiologic flow and vessels are less fibrotic, while ablative procedures are regarded to be the best alternative in very advanced lymphedema stages. A combination of physiologic and ablative procedures provides more comprehensive surgical management to BCRL. Conclusions: Lymphedema is a common complication of breast cancer treatment with an extensive incidence range. Postoperative outcomes of the surgical management of BCRL are heterogeneous despite most studies indicating favorable results after lymphatic surgery.

Breast reconstruction using the Latissimus Dorsi Flap and Immediate Fat Transfer (LIFT): A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Despite several efforts have been made to increase the volume of the latissimus dorsi (LD) flap, few studies have reported the outcomes of LD flap and immediate fat transfer (LIFT) to restore a natural native breast appearance during the initial reconstructive procedure. The aim of this study was to report the different surgical techniques used when implementing LIFT for breast reconstruction and evaluate the postoperative outcomes. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted across PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Ovid MEDLINE®, and Scopus. We included articles reporting postoperative outcomes of patients who underwent breast reconstruction with LIFT. RESULTS: We included nineteen studies reporting outcomes of 704 breast reconstructions with LIFT (57.09%). The average age and BMI of patients were 51 years and 26.01 kg/m2. The pooled rate of patients requiring additional fat grafting following LIFT was 64.9% (95% CI 43.3%-86.5%). The overall pooled incidence of total flap loss was 3% (95% CI <0%-7.2%), wound-related complications was 14.5% (95% CI 7.3%-21.7%), seroma was 18.2% (95% CI 5.1%-31.2%), and fat necrosis was 14.5% (95% CI 4.5%-24.4%). When compared with abdominal free flaps, we found a significantly lower risk difference of developing wound-related complications favoring LIFT (RD, 0.066; 95%CI 0.004-0.129; p = 0.038). CONCLUSIONS: LIFT offers a totally autologous, less morbid type of reconstruction in breast cancer patients who are not ideal candidates for reconstruction with free tissue transfer. However, immediate fat transfer during reconstruction with the LD flap does not eliminate the need for further fat grafting.

Definitive Closure of the Tracheoesophageal Puncture Site after Oncologic Laryngectomy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Tracheoesophageal puncture (TEP) and voice prosthesis insertion following laryngectomy may fail to form an adequate seal. When spontaneous closure of the fistula tract does not occur after conservative measures, surgical closure is required. The purpose of this study was to summarize the available evidence on surgical methods for TEP site closure. A comprehensive search across PubMed, Web of Science, SCOPUS, and Cochrane was performed to identify studies describing surgical techniques, outcomes, and complications for TEP closure. We evaluated the rate of unsuccessful TEP closure after surgical management. A meta-analysis with a random-effect method was performed. Thirty-four studies reporting on 144 patients satisfied inclusion criteria. The overall incidence of an unsuccessful TEP surgical closure was 6% (95% confidence interval [CI] 1-13%). Subgroup analysis showed an unsuccessful TEP closure rate for silicone button of 8% (95% CI < 1-43%), 7% (95% CI < 1-34%) for dermal graft interposition, < 1% (95% CI < 1-37%) for radial forearm free flap, < 1% (95% CI < 1-52%) for ligation of the fistula, 17% (95% CI < 1-64%) for interposition of a deltopectoral flap, 9% (95% CI < 1-28%) for primary closure, and 2% (95% CI < 1-20%) for interposition of a sternocleidomastoid muscle flap. Critical assessment of the reconstructive modality should take into consideration previous history of surgery or radiotherapy. Nonirradiated fields and small defects may benefit from fistula excision and tracheal and esophageal multilayer closure. In cases of previous radiotherapy, local flaps or free tissue transfer yield high successful TEP closure rates. Depending on the defect size, sternocleidomastoid muscle flap or fasciocutaneous free flaps are optimal alternatives.