Electron counting with direct electron detectors in MicroED.

The combination of high sensitivity and rapid readout makes it possible for electron-counting detectors to record cryogenic electron microscopy data faster and more accurately without increasing the number of electrons used for data collection. This is especially useful for MicroED of macromolecular crystals where the strength of the diffracted signal at high resolution is comparable to the surrounding background. The ability to decrease fluence also alleviates concerns about radiation damage which limits the information that can be recovered from a diffraction measurement. The major concern with electron-counting direct detectors lies at the low end of the resolution spectrum: their limited linear range makes strong low-resolution reflections susceptible to coincidence loss and careful data collection is required to avoid compromising data quality. Nevertheless, these cameras are increasingly deployed in cryo-EM facilities, and several have been successfully used for MicroED. Provided coincidence loss can be minimized, electron-counting detectors bring high potential rewards.

Electron-counting in MicroED.

The combination of high sensitivity and rapid readout makes it possible for electron-counting detectors to record cryogenic electron microscopy data faster and more accurately without increasing the exposure. This is especially useful for MicroED of macromolecular crystals where the strength of the diffracted signal at high resolution is comparable to the surrounding background. The ability to decrease the exposure also alleviates concerns about radiation damage which limits the information that can be recovered from a diffraction measurement. However, the dynamic range of electron-counting detectors requires careful data collection to avoid errors from coincidence loss. Nevertheless, these detectors are increasingly deployed in cryo-EM facilities, and several have been successfully used for MicroED. Provided coincidence loss can be minimized, electron-counting detectors bring high potential rewards.

A robust approach for MicroED sample preparation of lipidic cubic phase embedded membrane protein crystals.

Crystallizing G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in lipidic cubic phase (LCP) often yields crystals suited for the cryogenic electron microscopy (cryoEM) method microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED). However, sample preparation is challenging. Embedded crystals cannot be targeted topologically. Here, we use an integrated fluorescence light microscope (iFLM) inside of a focused ion beam and scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM) to identify fluorescently labeled GPCR crystals. Crystals are targeted using the iFLM and LCP is milled using a plasma focused ion beam (pFIB). The optimal ion source for preparing biological lamellae is identified using standard crystals of proteinase K. Lamellae prepared using either argon or xenon produced the highest quality data and structures. MicroED data are collected from the milled lamellae and the structures are determined. This study outlines a robust approach to identify and mill membrane protein crystals for MicroED and demonstrates plasma ion-beam milling is a powerful tool for preparing biological lamellae.

Hydrogens and hydrogen-bond networks in macromolecular MicroED data.

Microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) is a powerful technique utilizing electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) for protein structure determination of crystalline samples too small for X-ray crystallography. Electrons interact with the electrostatic potential of the sample, which means that the scattered electrons carry information about the charged state of atoms and provide relatively stronger contrast for visualizing hydrogen atoms. Accurately identifying the positions of hydrogen atoms, and by extension the hydrogen bonding networks, is of importance for understanding protein structure and function, in particular for drug discovery. However, identification of individual hydrogen atom positions typically requires atomic resolution data, and has thus far remained elusive for macromolecular MicroED. Recently, we presented the ab initio structure of triclinic hen egg-white lysozyme at 0.87 Å resolution. The corresponding data were recorded under low exposure conditions using an electron-counting detector from thin crystalline lamellae. Here, using these subatomic resolution MicroED data, we identified over a third of all hydrogen atom positions based on strong difference peaks, and directly visualize hydrogen bonding interactions and the charged states of residues. Furthermore, we find that the hydrogen bond lengths are more accurately described by the inter-nuclei distances than the centers of mass of the corresponding electron clouds. We anticipate that MicroED, coupled with ongoing advances in data collection and refinement, can open further avenues for structural biology by uncovering the hydrogen atoms and hydrogen bonding interactions underlying protein structure and function.

Electron-counting MicroED data with the K2 and K3 direct electron detectors.

Microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) uses electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) to collect diffraction data from small crystals during continuous rotation of the sample. As a result of advances in hardware as well as methods development, the data quality has continuously improved over the past decade, to the point where even macromolecular structures can be determined ab initio. Detectors suitable for electron diffraction should ideally have fast readout to record data in movie mode, and high sensitivity at low exposure rates to accurately report the intensities. Direct electron detectors are commonly used in cryo-EM imaging for their sensitivity and speed, but despite their availability are generally not used in diffraction. Primary concerns with diffraction experiments are the dynamic range and coincidence loss, which will corrupt the measurement if the flux exceeds the count rate of the detector. Here, we describe instrument setup and low-exposure MicroED data collection in electron-counting mode using K2 and K3 direct electron detectors and show that the integrated intensities can be effectively used to solve structures of two macromolecules between 1.2 Å and 2.8 Å resolution. Even though a beam stop was not used with the K3 studies we did not observe damage to the camera. As these cameras are already available in many cryo-EM facilities, this provides opportunities for users who do not have access to dedicated facilities for MicroED.

CELLOPT: improved unit-cell parameters for electron diffraction data of small-molecule crystals.

Electron diffraction enables structure determination of organic small molecules using crystals that are too small for conventional X-ray crystallography. However, because of uncertainties in the experimental parameters, notably the detector distance, the unit-cell parameters and the geometry of the structural models are typically less accurate and precise compared with results obtained by X-ray diffraction. Here, an iterative procedure to optimize the unit-cell parameters obtained from electron diffraction using idealized restraints is proposed. The cell optimization routine has been implemented as part of the structure refinement, and a gradual improvement in lattice parameters and data quality is demonstrated. It is shown that cell optimization, optionally combined with geometrical corrections for any apparent detector distortions, benefits refinement of electron diffraction data in small-molecule crystallography and leads to more accurate structural models.

Visualizing the Entire Range of Noncovalent Interactions in Nanocrystalline Hybrid Materials Using 3D Electron Diffraction.

Noncovalent interactions are essential in the formation and properties of a diverse range of hybrid materials. However, reliably identifying the noncovalent interactions in nanocrystalline materials remains challenging using conventional methods such as X-ray diffraction and spectroscopy. Here, we demonstrate that accurate atomic positions including hydrogen atoms can be determined using three-dimensional electron diffraction (3D ED), from which the entire range of noncovalent interactions in a nanocrystalline aluminophosphate hybrid material SCM-34 are directly visualized. The protonation states of both the inorganic and organic components in SCM-34 are determined from the hydrogen positions. All noncovalent interactions, including hydrogen-bonding, electrostatic, π-π stacking, and van der Waals interactions, are unambiguously identified, which provides detailed insights into the formation of the material. The 3D ED data also allow us to distinguish different types of covalent bonds based on their bond lengths and to identify an elongated terminal P═O π-bond caused by noncovalent interactions. Our results show that 3D ED can be a powerful tool for resolving detailed noncovalent interactions in nanocrystalline materials. This can improve our understanding of hybrid systems and guide the development of novel functional materials.

Ab initio phasing macromolecular structures using electron-counted MicroED data.

Structures of two globular proteins were determined ab initio using microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) data that were collected on a direct electron detector in counting mode. Microcrystals were identified using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and thinned with a focused ion beam (FIB) to produce crystalline lamellae of ideal thickness. Continuous-rotation data were collected using an ultra-low exposure rate to enable electron counting in diffraction. For the first sample, triclinic lysozyme extending to a resolution of 0.87 Å, an ideal helical fragment of only three alanine residues provided initial phases. These phases were improved using density modification, allowing the entire atomic structure to be built automatically. A similar approach was successful on a second macromolecular sample, proteinase K, which is much larger and diffracted to a resolution of 1.5 Å. These results demonstrate that macromolecules can be determined to sub-ångström resolution by MicroED and that ab initio phasing can be successfully applied to counting data.

MicroED: conception, practice and future opportunities.

This article documents a keynote seminar presented at the IUCr Congress in Prague, 2021. The cryo-EM method microcrystal electron diffraction is described and put in the context of macromolecular electron crystallography from its origins in 2D crystals of membrane proteins to today's application to 3D crystals a millionth the size of that needed for X-ray crystallography. Milestones in method development and applications are described with an outlook to the future.

Benchmarking the ideal sample thickness in cryo-EM.

The relationship between sample thickness and quality of data obtained is investigated by microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED). Several electron microscopy (EM) grids containing proteinase K microcrystals of similar sizes from the same crystallization batch were prepared. Each grid was transferred into a focused ion beam and a scanning electron microscope in which the crystals were then systematically thinned into lamellae between 95- and 1,650-nm thick. MicroED data were collected at either 120-, 200-, or 300-kV accelerating voltages. Lamellae thicknesses were expressed in multiples of the corresponding inelastic mean free path to allow the results from different acceleration voltages to be compared. The quality of the data and subsequently determined structures were assessed using standard crystallographic measures. Structures were reliably determined with similar quality from crystalline lamellae up to twice the inelastic mean free path. Lower resolution diffraction was observed at three times the mean free path for all three accelerating voltages, but the data quality was insufficient to yield structures. Finally, no coherent diffraction was observed from lamellae thicker than four times the calculated inelastic mean free path. This study benchmarks the ideal specimen thickness with implications for all cryo-EM methods.

MyD88 TIR domain higher-order assembly interactions revealed by microcrystal electron diffraction and serial femtosecond crystallography.

MyD88 and MAL are Toll-like receptor (TLR) adaptors that signal to induce pro-inflammatory cytokine production. We previously observed that the TIR domain of MAL (MALTIR) forms filaments in vitro and induces formation of crystalline higher-order assemblies of the MyD88 TIR domain (MyD88TIR). These crystals are too small for conventional X-ray crystallography, but are ideally suited to structure determination by microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) and serial femtosecond crystallography (SFX). Here, we present MicroED and SFX structures of the MyD88TIR assembly, which reveal a two-stranded higher-order assembly arrangement of TIR domains analogous to that seen previously for MALTIR. We demonstrate via mutagenesis that the MyD88TIR assembly interfaces are critical for TLR4 signaling in vivo, and we show that MAL promotes unidirectional assembly of MyD88TIR. Collectively, our studies provide structural and mechanistic insight into TLR signal transduction and allow a direct comparison of the MicroED and SFX techniques.

Macromolecular crystallography using microcrystal electron diffraction.

Microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) has recently emerged as a promising method for macromolecular structure determination in structural biology. Since the first protein structure was determined in 2013, the method has been evolving rapidly. Several protein structures have been determined and various studies indicate that MicroED is capable of (i) revealing atomic structures with charges, (ii) solving new protein structures by molecular replacement, (iii) visualizing ligand-binding interactions and (iv) determining membrane-protein structures from microcrystals embedded in lipidic mesophases. However, further development and optimization is required to make MicroED experiments more accurate and more accessible to the structural biology community. Here, we provide an overview of the current status of the field, and highlight the ongoing development, to provide an indication of where the field may be going in the coming years. We anticipate that MicroED will become a robust method for macromolecular structure determination, complementing existing methods in structural biology.

Statistically correcting dynamical electron scattering improves the refinement of protein nanocrystals, including charge refinement of coordinated metals.

Electron diffraction allows protein structure determination when only nanosized crystals are available. Nevertheless, multiple elastic (or dynamical) scattering, which is prominent in electron diffraction, is a concern. Current methods for modeling dynamical scattering by multi-slice or Bloch wave approaches are not suitable for protein crystals because they are not designed to cope with large molecules. Here, dynamical scattering of nanocrystals of insulin, thermolysin and thaumatin was limited by collecting data from thin crystals. To accurately measure the weak diffraction signal from the few unit cells in the thin crystals, a low-noise hybrid pixel Timepix electron-counting detector was used. The remaining dynamical component was further reduced in refinement using a likelihood-based correction, which was introduced previously for analyzing electron diffraction data of small-molecule nanocrystals and was adapted here for protein crystals. The procedure is shown to notably improve the structural refinement, in one case allowing the location of solvent molecules. It also allowed refinement of the charge states of bound metal atoms, an important element in protein function, through B-factor analysis of the metal atoms and their ligands. These results clearly increase the value of macromolecular electron crystallography as a complementary structural biology technique.

Visualizing drug binding interactions using microcrystal electron diffraction.

Visualizing ligand binding interactions is important for structure-based drug design and fragment-based screening methods. Rapid and uniform soaking with potentially reduced lattice defects make small macromolecular crystals attractive targets for studying drug binding using microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED). However, so far no drug binding interactions could unambiguously be resolved by electron diffraction alone. Here, we use MicroED to study the binding of a sulfonamide inhibitor to human carbonic anhydrase isoform II (HCA II). We show that MicroED data can efficiently be collected on a conventional transmission electron microscope from thin hydrated microcrystals soaked with the clinical drug acetazolamide (AZM). The data are of high enough quality to unequivocally fit and resolve the bound inhibitor. We anticipate MicroED can play an important role in facilitating in-house fragment screening for drug discovery, complementing existing methods in structural biology such as X-ray and neutron diffraction.

Polymorph evolution during crystal growth studied by 3D electron diffraction.

3D electron diffraction (3DED) has been used to follow polymorph evolution in the crystallization of glycine from aqueous solution. The three polymorphs of glycine which exist under ambient conditions follow the stability order ß < α < γ. The least stable ß polymorph forms within the first 3 min, but this begins to yield the α-form after only 1 min more. Both structures could be determined from continuous rotation electron diffraction data collected in less than 20 s on crystals of thickness ∼100 nm. Even though the γ-form is thermodynamically the most stable polymorph, kinetics favour the α-form, which dominates after prolonged standing. In the same sample, some ß and one crystallite of the γ polymorph were also observed.

Microcrystal electron diffraction in macromolecular and pharmaceutical structure determination.

Microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) has recently shown to be a promising technique for structure determination in structural biology and pharmaceutical chemistry. Here, we discuss the unique properties of electrons and motivate its use for diffraction experiments. We review the latest developments in MicroED, and illustrate its applications in macromolecular crystallography, fragment screening and structure guided drug discovery. We discuss the perspectives of MicroED in synthetic chemistry and pharmaceutical development. We anticipate that the rapid advances MicroED showcased here will promote further development of electron crystallography and open up new opportunities for drug discovery.

Solving a new R2lox protein structure by microcrystal electron diffraction.

Microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) has recently shown potential for structural biology. It enables the study of biomolecules from micrometer-sized 3D crystals that are too small to be studied by conventional x-ray crystallography. However, to date, MicroED has only been applied to redetermine protein structures that had already been solved previously by x-ray diffraction. Here, we present the first new protein structure-an R2lox enzyme-solved using MicroED. The structure was phased by molecular replacement using a search model of 35% sequence identity. The resulting electrostatic scattering potential map at 3.0-Å resolution was of sufficient quality to allow accurate model building and refinement. The dinuclear metal cofactor could be located in the map and was modeled as a heterodinuclear Mn/Fe center based on previous studies. Our results demonstrate that MicroED has the potential to become a widely applicable tool for revealing novel insights into protein structure and function.

Reducing dynamical electron scattering reveals hydrogen atoms.

Compared with X-rays, electron diffraction faces a crucial challenge: dynamical electron scattering compromises structure solution and its effects can only be modelled in specific cases. Dynamical scattering can be reduced experimentally by decreasing crystal size but not without a penalty, as it also reduces the overall diffracted intensity. In this article it is shown that nanometre-sized crystals from organic pharmaceuticals allow positional refinement of the hydrogen atoms, even whilst ignoring the effects of dynamical scattering during refinement. To boost the very weak diffraction data, a highly sensitive hybrid pixel detector was employed. A general likelihood-based computational approach was also introduced for further reducing the adverse effects of dynamic scattering, which significantly improved model accuracy, even for protein crystal data at substantially lower resolution.

A Molecular Level Approach To Elucidate the Supramolecular Packing of Light-Harvesting Antenna Systems.

The molecular geometry and supramolecular packing of two bichromophoric prototypic light harvesting compounds D1A2 and D2A2, consisting of two naphthylimide energy donors that were attached to the 1,7 bay positions of a perylene monoimide diester energy acceptor, have been determined by a hybrid approach using magic angle spinning NMR spectroscopy and electron nano-crystallography (ENC), followed by modelling. NMR shift constraints, combined with the P 1 ‾ space group obtained from ENC, were used to generate a centrosymmetric dimer of truncated perylene fragments. This racemic packing motif is used in a biased molecular replacement approach to generate a partial 3D electrostatic scattering potential map. Resolving the structure of the bay substituents is guided by the inversion symmetry, and the distance constraints obtained from heteronuclear correlation spectra. The antenna molecules form a pseudocrystalline lattice of antiparallel centrosymmetric dimers with pockets of partially disordered bay substituents. The two molecules in a unit cell form a butterfly-type arrangement. The hybrid methodology that has been developed is robust and widely applicable for critical structural underpinning of self-assembling structures of large organic molecules.

Electron diffraction data processing with DIALS.

Electron diffraction is a relatively novel alternative to X-ray crystallography for the structure determination of macromolecules from three-dimensional nanometre-sized crystals. The continuous-rotation method of data collection has been adapted for the electron microscope. However, there are important differences in geometry that must be considered for successful data integration. The wavelength of electrons in a TEM is typically around 40 times shorter than that of X-rays, implying a nearly flat Ewald sphere, and consequently low diffraction angles and a high effective sample-to-detector distance. Nevertheless, the DIALS software package can, with specific adaptations, successfully process continuous-rotation electron diffraction data. Pathologies encountered specifically in electron diffraction make data integration more challenging. Errors can arise from instrumentation, such as beam drift or distorted diffraction patterns from lens imperfections. The diffraction geometry brings additional challenges such as strong correlation between lattice parameters and detector distance. These issues are compounded if calibration is incomplete, leading to uncertainty in experimental geometry, such as the effective detector distance and the rotation rate or direction. Dynamic scattering, absorption, radiation damage and incomplete wedges of data are additional factors that complicate data processing. Here, recent features of DIALS as adapted to electron diffraction processing are shown, including diagnostics for problematic diffraction geometry refinement, refinement of a smoothly varying beam model and corrections for distorted diffraction images. These novel features, combined with the existing tools in DIALS, make data integration and refinement feasible for electron crystallography, even in difficult cases.