Profiles of teachers' classroom management style: Differences in perceived school climate and professional characteristics.

Teachers are tasked with not only delivering high-quality, evidence-based academic instruction, but they are also responsible for managing student behavior within the classroom and school. To manage these behaviors, teachers can use a variety of strategies that result in a range of outcomes on student and school-wide functioning. Although an overreliance on punitive strategies has been shown to worsen behavior problems, positive strategies and social-emotional learning (SEL) techniques are associated with more favorable outcomes for students' global functioning. In a sample of K-12 teachers (N = 111), we examined direct associations between teachers' use of behavior management techniques (i.e., punitive, positive, and SEL) and their self-reports of perceived school climate. Furthermore, latent profile analysis was used to identify teachers' behavior management styles and evaluate whether teachers' characteristics and perceived school climate predicted behavior management style. Findings not only replicate previous research examining direct associations between behavior management techniques and school climate, but also extend the theoretical understanding of teachers' behavior management approaches. Three profiles of teacher behavior management style emerged, including a (a) Moderate Proactive profile characterized by frequent use of positive strategies and SEL techniques and infrequent use of punitive strategies; (b) Moderate Reactive/Proactive profile characterized by moderate use of both punitive strategies and positive strategies, as well as slightly lower use of SEL techniques; and (c) High Proactive profile characterized by very frequent use of positive strategies and SEL techniques and very infrequent use of punitive strategies. Use of these profiles may enhance understanding of how school psychologists can support teachers' behavior management practices through consultation or professional development to promote effective school and classroom behavior management practices.

Demystifying longitudinal data analyses using structural equation models in school psychology.

Structural equation models (SEM) are a method of latent variable analysis that offer a high degree of flexibility in terms of modeling methods for applied research questions. Recent advancements associated with longitudinal SEM have unlocked innovative ways to decompose variance and to estimate mean trends over time (e.g., Allison et al., 2017; Berry & Willoughby, 2017; Hamaker et al., 2015; McArdle & Nesselroade, 2014). However, these longitudinal methods are not necessarily readily accessible to scholars seeking to advance theory and practice in school psychology. Importantly, not all longitudinal data are the same and not all longitudinal SEMs are the same; thus, analytic approaches must be appropriately matched to specific research aims to meaningfully inform school psychology theory and practice. The present article highlights recent advances in longitudinal SEMs, clarifies their similarities to other-perhaps more familiar-methods, and matches their applications to specific types of research questions. The intent of this work is to promote careful thinking about the correspondence between estimands, developmental theory, and practical applications to foster specificity in testing quantitative questions in school psychology research and advance a more rigorous evaluation of longitudinal trends relevant to research and practice in the field.

Returning to School: Teachers' Occupational and COVID-19-Related Stress and Their Perceptions of School Climate.

Minimizing teacher stress is an essential aspect of effective teaching and supporting a healthy school climate. Previous research has indicated that teachers who experience elevated levels of occupational stress may have a negative perception of their school's climate, poor mental/physical health, poor relationships with their students, and are less likely to stay within their occupations. In addition, recent research has shown that Americans have experienced an increase in stress levels since the beginning of 2020 due to COVID-19-related stressors. This study sought to expand on previous research that investigated how teacher occupational stress is associated with teachers' perceptions of school climate. This study also examined how COVID-19-related stressors are associated with teachers' perceptions of school climate. Data from 111 elementary, middle, and high school teachers in the Southeastern United States were collected using self-report surveys on school climate, teacher occupational stress, and COVID-19-related stress. Linear regression analysis revealed that teacher occupational stress was not significantly associated with teachers' perceptions of school climate; however, a negative association between teachers' COVID-19-related stress and their perceptions of school climate was observed. This finding suggests that as teachers' COVID-19-related stress increased, their perceptions of school climate tended to decrease. The findings of this study provide insight into how to better support teachers' well-being so they can effectively perform their jobs and contribute to positive outcomes for students. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40688-022-00428-2.

Victimization and depressive symptoms in early adolescence: The role of perceived school climate.

Nearly 4 million adolescents in the United States experience clinical depression, and this alarming rate has increased in recent years. Adolescents' perceptions of their school's climate may moderate the association between victimization and depressive symptoms, including suicidality; however, it is unclear whether perceived school climate would act as a buffer or intensifier of the association between victimization and depressive symptoms. The present study examined how different types of victimization (traditional, cyber, and homophobic) are associated with depressive symptoms in middle schoolers (N = 1,151), and whether these associations are buffered or exacerbated by how adolescents perceive school climate. Multiple moderated regression analyses revealed traditional and cyber victimization were significantly positively associated with depressive symptoms, whereas homophobic victimization was not directly associated with depressive symptoms. Further, perceived school climate moderated these associations, exacerbating the link between cyber victimization and depressive symptoms, and buffering the link between homophobic victimization and depression. Results support the importance of middle schoolers' perceptions of school climate in understanding the associations between victimization experiences and depressive symptoms. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Adolescent mental health profiles through a latent dual-factor approach.

The dual-factor model of mental health emphasizes the integration of subjective well-being and psychopathology to obtain a complete conceptualization of mental health. When used in schoolwide screenings, this dual-factor approach provides a more comprehensive picture of students' mental health. In a sample of adolescents (N = 404) attending a Midwestern U.S. middle school (Grades 6-8), the current study empirically identified mental health groups through latent profile analysis (LPA) and examined how profile membership was predicted by various demographic variables, academic achievement, general grit, academic grit, and growth mindset. Three mental health profiles emerged: Complete Mental Health (above average life satisfaction and affect, below average internalizing and externalizing problems), Symptomatic but Content (average to above average life satisfaction and affect, above average internalizing and externalizing difficulties), and Troubled (below average life satisfaction and affect, above average internalizing and externalizing difficulties). These profiles partially supported the dual-factor model of mental health, although a vulnerable group was not identified. Gender, SES, racial identity, and IEP status were significant predictors of mental health profile membership. Academic achievement, general grit, academic grit, and growth mindset were also significant predictors of mental health group membership. Limitations, future directions, and implications are discussed, including how these findings inform school psychological theory and practice.

Bullying, victimization, and bystander behavior: Risk factors across elementary-middle school transition.

Students with mental health difficulties are at increased risk for victimization, and this risk may be exacerbated during the transition to middle school, when there is an increase in bullying behaviors. Through a social-ecological lens, the present study investigated how internalizing and externalizing problems in the fall of fifth grade were associated with bullying role behaviors in the fall of sixth grade and whether these associations differed by gender. This study expanded prior research by examining not only bullying and victimization, but also bystander behaviors (i.e., assisting, defending, or outsider behavior). Participants were students attending fifth grade at one of 13 elementary schools at Time 1, and later attending sixth grade at one of five middle schools at Time 2 (N = 1,139). Structural equation modeling results indicated that externalizing problems in fifth grade were positively associated with bullying (B = .25, p < .001), assisting (B = .08, p = .024), and victimization (B = .30, p = .010) in sixth grade; further, internalizing problems in fifth grade were significantly positively associated with victimization (B = .43, p < .001) and defending (B = .33, p = .002) in sixth grade. There were no significant gender differences in these associations. Implications for social-emotional screening and intervention are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Academic Grit Scale: Psychometric properties and associations with achievement and life satisfaction.

After a decade of research, grit has been linked to many adaptive outcomes for adolescents and the development of school-based interventions for promoting adolescents' grit has been recommended. However, a reconceptualization of grit and its measurement may be vital for future grit research and application. The currently predominant grit assessments may be inappropriate for youth populations, yielding evidence of low psychometric properties and variable criterion-related validity. In a sample of adolescents (N = 757) in sixth to eighth grade, the current study investigated the psychometric properties of the Academic Grit Scale, a novel measure of domain-specific grit. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed a single-factor structure of the Academic Grit Scale, and evidence of high internal consistency reliability and construct validity was observed. Results indicated positive associations between academic grit and academic achievement, life satisfaction, and school satisfaction. Furthermore, academic grit demonstrated incremental validity above and beyond that of general grit in association with these outcomes. Implications of the findings are discussed, including the potential to inform applied practices in schools and future empirical investigations.