Diterpenes of Coffea seeds show antifungal and anti-insect activities and are transferred from the endosperm to the seedling after germination.

Species of the genus Coffea accumulate diterpenes of the ent-kaurane family in the endosperm of their seeds, of which cafestol and kahweol are the most abundant. The diterpenes are mainly stored in esterified form with fatty acids, mostly palmitate. In contrast to the numerous studies on their effects on human health and therapeutic applications, nothing was previously known about their biological and ecological role in planta. The antifungal and anti-insect activities of cafestol and cafestol palmitate were thus investigated in this study. Cafestol significantly affected the mycelial growth of five of the six phytopathogenic fungi tested. It also greatly reduced the percentage of pupation of larvae and the pupae and adult masses of one of the two fruit flies tested. By contrast, cafestol palmitate had no significant effect against any of the fungi and insects studied. Using confocal imaging and oil body isolation and analysis, we showed that diterpenes are localized in endosperm oil bodies, suggesting that esterification with fatty acids enables the accumulation of large amounts of diterpenes in a non-toxic form. Diterpene measurements in all organs of seedlings recovered from whole seed germination or embryos isolated from the endosperm showed that diterpenes are transferred from the endosperm to the cotyledons during seedling growth and then distributed to all organs, including the hypocotyl and the root. Collectively, our findings show that coffee diterpenes are broad-spectrum defence compounds that protect not only the seed on the mother plant and in the soil, but also the seedling after germination.

Morphometric and molecular discrimination of the sugarcane aphid, Melanaphis sacchari, (Zehntner, 1897) and the sorghum aphid Melanaphis sorghi (Theobald, 1904).

Melanaphis sacchari (Zehntner, 1897) and Melanaphis sorghi (Theobald, 1904) are major worldwide crop pests causing direct feeding damage on sorghum and transmitting viruses to sugarcane. It is common in the scientific literature to consider these two species as synonyms, referred to as the 'sugarcane aphid', although no formal study has validated this synonymy. In this study, based on the comparison of samples collected from their whole distribution area, we use both morphometric and molecular data to better characterize the discrimination between M. sacchari and M. sorghi. An unsupervised multivariate analysis of morphometric data clearly confirmed the separation of the two species. The best discriminating characters separating these species were length of the antenna processus terminalis relative to length of hind tibia, siphunculus or cauda. However, those criteria sometimes do not allow an unambiguous identification. Bayesian clustering based on microsatellite data delimited two clusters, which corresponded to the morphological species separation. The DNA sequencing of three nuclear and three mitochondrial regions revealed slight divergence between species. In particular, the COI barcode region proved to be uninformative for species separation because one haplotype is shared by both species. In contrast, one SNP located on the nuclear EF1-α gene was diagnostic for species separation. Based on morphological and molecular evidence, the invasive genotype damaging to sorghum in the US, Mexico and the Caribbean since 2013 is found to be M. sorghi.

Contrasting genetic diversity and structure among Malagasy Ralstonia pseudosolanacearum phylotype I populations inferred from an optimized Multilocus Variable Number of Tandem Repeat Analysis scheme.

The Ralstonia solanacearum species complex (RSSC), composed of three species and four phylotypes, are globally distributed soil-borne bacteria with a very broad host range. In 2009, a devastating potato bacterial wilt outbreak was declared in the central highlands of Madagascar, which reduced the production of vegetable crops including potato, eggplant, tomato and pepper. A molecular epidemiology study of Malagasy RSSC strains carried out between 2013 and 2017 identified R. pseudosolanacearum (phylotypes I and III) and R. solanacearum (phylotype II). A previously published population biology analysis of phylotypes II and III using two MultiLocus Variable Number of Tandem Repeats Analysis (MLVA) schemes revealed an emergent epidemic phylotype II (sequevar 1) group and endemic phylotype III isolates. We developed an optimized MLVA scheme (RS1-MLVA14) to characterize phylotype I strains in Madagascar to understand their genetic diversity and structure. The collection included isolates from 16 fields of different Solanaceae species sampled in Analamanga and Itasy regions (highlands) in 2013 (123 strains) and in Atsinanana region (lowlands) in 2006 (25 strains). Thirty-one haplotypes were identified, two of them being particularly prevalent: MT007 (30.14%) and MT004 (16.44%) (sequevar 18). Genetic diversity analysis revealed a significant contrasting level of diversity according to elevation and sampling region. More diverse at low altitude than at high altitude, the Malagasy phylotype I isolates were structured in two clusters, probably resulting from different historical introductions. Interestingly, the most prevalent Malagasy phylotype I isolates were genetically distant from regional and worldwide isolates. In this work, we demonstrated that the RS1-MLVA14 scheme can resolve differences from regional to field scales and is thus suited for deciphering the epidemiology of phylotype I populations.

Variation in physiological host range in three strains of two species of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria.

Knowledge of the host range of a biocontrol agent (BCA) is fundamental. Host range determines the BCA's economic potential, as well as the possible risk for non-target organisms. Entomopathogenic fungal strains belonging to the genus Beauveria are widely used as BCA, but our knowledge of their physiological host range is only partial. The aim of this study was to improve our understanding of the physiological host range of three Beauveria strains belonging to two species, B. hoplocheli and B. bassiana. We performed laboratory mortality bioassays to assess their pathogenicity and virulence against nine insect pests, belonging to three orders: Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Diptera. Mortality rate, mean survival time and mycosis rate were used to estimate virulence. Pathogenicity was assessed as the capacity to cause a disease and induce mortality. Virulence was assessed as the severity of the disease based on mortality rate, mean survival time and mycosis rate. The results of this study revealed significant differences in the physiological host range of the three Beauveria strains tested. The three strains were pathogenic to all Diptera and Lepidoptera species tested. In the case of the Coleoptera, only the B. hoplocheli strain was pathogenic to the white grub Hoplochelus marginalis and only the B. bassiana strains were pathogenic to Alphitobius diaperinus. The B. hoplocheli strain was less virulent on Lepidoptera and Diptera than the two B. bassiana strains. The latter both exhibited very similar virulence patterns. The fact that B. hoplocheli and B. bassiana strains have different host ranges means that they can be used as BCA to target different pests. Impacts on non-target insects across multiple orders cannot be ruled out in the absence of ecological host range studies.

A mosaic monoploid reference sequence for the highly complex genome of sugarcane.

Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is a major crop for sugar and bioenergy production. Its highly polyploid, aneuploid, heterozygous, and interspecific genome poses major challenges for producing a reference sequence. We exploited colinearity with sorghum to produce a BAC-based monoploid genome sequence of sugarcane. A minimum tiling path of 4660 sugarcane BAC that best covers the gene-rich part of the sorghum genome was selected based on whole-genome profiling, sequenced, and assembled in a 382-Mb single tiling path of a high-quality sequence. A total of 25,316 protein-coding gene models are predicted, 17% of which display no colinearity with their sorghum orthologs. We show that the two species, S. officinarum and S. spontaneum, involved in modern cultivars differ by their transposable elements and by a few large chromosomal rearrangements, explaining their distinct genome size and distinct basic chromosome numbers while also suggesting that polyploidization arose in both lineages after their divergence.

Invasion of sorghum in the Americas by a new sugarcane aphid (Melanaphis sacchari) superclone.

In the United States (US), the sugarcane aphid (SCA) Melanaphis sacchari (Zehnter) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) was introduced in the 1970s, however at that time it was only considered a pest of sugarcane. In 2013, a massive outbreak of M. sacchari occured on sorghum, resulting in significant economic damage to sorghum grown in North America including the US, Mexico, and Puerto Rico. The aim of the present study was to determine if the SCA pest emergence in American sorghum resulted from the introduction of new genotypes. To this end we used microsatellite markers and COI sequencing to compare the genetic diversity of SCA populations collected in the Americas after the 2013 SCA outbreak on sorghum (during 2013-2017) to older samples collected before the pest outbreak (during 2007-2009). Our results show that the SCA outbreak in the Americas and the Caribbean observed since 2013 belong to populations exhibiting low genetic diversity and consisting of a dominant clonal lineage, MLL-F, which colonizes Sorghum spp. and sugarcane. The comparison of MLL-F specimens collected post-2013 with specimens collected in Louisiana in 2007 revealed that both populations are genetically distinct, according to COI sequencing and microsatellite data analyses. Our result suggest that MLL-F is a new invasive genotype introduced into the Americas that has spread rapidly across sorghum growing regions in the US, Mexico, Honduras and the Caribbean. The origin of this introduction is either Africa or Asia, with Asia being the most probable source.

Molecular Epidemiology of Bacterial Wilt in the Madagascar Highlands Caused by Andean (Phylotype IIB-1) and African (Phylotype III) Brown Rot Strains of the Ralstonia solanacearum Species Complex.

The Ralstonia solanacearum species complex (RSSC) is a highly diverse cluster of bacterial strains found worldwide, many of which are destructive and cause bacterial wilt (BW) in a wide range of host plants. In 2009, potato production in Madagascar was dramatically affected by several BW epidemics. Controlling this disease is critical for Malagasy potato producers. The first important step toward control is the characterization of strains and their putative origins. The genetic diversity and population structure of the RSSC were investigated in the major potato production areas of the Highlands. A large collection of strains (n = 1224) was assigned to RSSC phylotypes based on multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Phylotypes I and III have been present in Madagascar for a long time but rarely associated with major potato BW outbreaks. The marked increase of BW prevalence was found associated with phylotype IIB sequevar 1 (IIB-1) strains (n = 879). This is the first report of phylotype IIB-1 strains in Madagascar. In addition to reference strains, epidemic IIB-1 strains (n = 255) were genotyped using the existing MultiLocus Variable-Number Tandem Repeat Analysis (MLVA) scheme RS2-MLVA9, producing 31 haplotypes separated into two related clonal complexes (CCs). One major CC included most of the worldwide haplotypes distributed across wide areas. A regional-scale investigation suggested that phylotype IIB-1 strains were introduced and massively spread via latently infected potato seed tubers. Additionally, the genetic structure of phylotype IIB-1 likely resulted from a bottleneck/founder effect. The population structure of phylotype III, described here for the first time in Madagascar, exhibited a different pattern. Phylotype III strains (n = 217) were genotyped using the highly discriminatory MLVA scheme RS3-MLVA16. High genetic diversity was uncovered, with 117 haplotypes grouped into 11 CCs. Malagasy phylotype III strains were highly differentiated from continental African strains, suggesting no recent migration from the continent. Overall, population structure of phylotype III involves individual small CCs that correlate to restricted geographic areas in Madagascar. The evidence suggests, if at all, that African phylotype III strains are not efficiently transmitted through latently infected potato seed tubers.

Host Plant Specialization in the Sugarcane Aphid Melanaphis sacchari.

Most aphids are highly specialized on one or two related plant species and generalist species often include sympatric populations adapted to different host plants. Our aim was to test the hypothesis of the existence of host specialized lineages of the aphid Melanaphis sacchari in Reunion Island. To this end, we investigated the genetic diversity of the aphid and its association with host plants by analyzing the effect of wild sorghum Sorghum bicolor subsp. verticilliflorum or sugarcane as host plants on the genetic structuring of populations and by performing laboratory host transfer experiments to detect trade-offs in host use. Genotyping of 31 samples with 10 microsatellite loci enabled identification of 13 multilocus genotypes (MLG). Three of these, Ms11, Ms16 and Ms15, were the most frequent ones. The genetic structure of the populations was linked to the host plants. Ms11 and Ms16 were significantly more frequently observed on sugarcane, while Ms15 was almost exclusively collected in colonies on wild sorghum. Laboratory transfer experiments demonstrated the existence of fitness trade-offs. An Ms11 isofemale lineage performed better on sugarcane than on sorghum, whereas an Ms15 lineage developed very poorly on sugarcane, and two Ms16 lineages showed no significant difference in performances between both hosts. Both field and laboratory results support the existence of host plant specialization in M. sacchari in Reunion Island, despite low genetic differentiation. This study illustrates the ability of asexual aphid lineages to rapidly undergo adaptive changes including shifting from one host plant to another.

Description and phylogenetic placement of Beauveria hoplocheli sp. nov. used in the biological control of the sugarcane white grub, Hoplochelus marginalis, on Reunion Island.

On Reunion Island successful biological control of the sugarcane white grub Hoplochelus marginalis Fairmaire (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae) has been conducted for decades with strains from the entomopathogenic fungal genus Beauveria (Ascomycota: Hypocreales). A study based on morphological characters combined with a multisequence phylogenetic analysis of genes that encode the translation elongation factor 1-alpha (TEF1), RNA polymerase II largest subunit (RPB1), RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (RPB2) and the Bloc nuc intergenic region was carried out on Beauveria strains isolated on Reunion and Madagascar from H. marginalis. This study revealed that these strains, previously identified as Beauveria brongniartii, did not match that species and are closely related to but still distinct from B. malawiensis strains. Therefore we describe the Reunion Island fungus as the new species B. hoplocheli.

Low genetic diversity in Melanaphis sacchari aphid populations at the worldwide scale.

Numerous studies have examined the genetic diversity and genetic structure of invading species, with contrasting results concerning the relative roles of genetic diversity and phenotypic plasticity in the success of introduced populations. Increasing evidence shows that asexual lineages of aphids are able to occupy a wide geographical and ecological range of habitats despite low genetic diversity. The anholocyclic aphid Melanaphis sacchari is a pest of sugarcane and sorghum which originated in the old world, was introduced into the Americas, and is now distributed worldwide. Our purpose was to assess the genetic diversity and structuring of populations of this species according to host and locality. We used 10 microsatellite markers to genotype 1333 individuals (57 samples, 42 localities, 15 countries) collected mainly on sugarcane or sorghum. Five multilocus lineages (MLL) were defined, grouping multilocus genotypes (MLG) differing by only a few mutations or scoring errors. Analysis of a 658 bp sequence of mitochondrial COI gene on 96 individuals revealed five haplotypes, with a mean divergence of only 0.19 %. The distribution of MLL appeared to be strongly influenced by geography but not by host plant. Each of the five MLL grouped individuals from (A) Africa, (B) Australia, (C) South America, the Caribbean and the Indian Ocean including East Africa, (D) USA, and (E) China. The MLL A and C, with a wide geographic distribution, matched the definition of superclone. Among aphids, M. sacchari has one of the lowest known rates of genetic diversity for such a wide geographical distribution.

Diploid/polyploid syntenic shuttle mapping and haplotype-specific chromosome walking toward a rust resistance gene (Bru1) in highly polyploid sugarcane (2n approximately 12x approximately 115).

The genome of modern sugarcane cultivars is highly polyploid (approximately 12x), aneuploid, of interspecific origin, and contains 10 Gb of DNA. Its size and complexity represent a major challenge for the isolation of agronomically important genes. Here we report on the first attempt to isolate a gene from sugarcane by map-based cloning, targeting a durable major rust resistance gene (Bru1). We describe the genomic strategies that we have developed to overcome constraints associated with high polyploidy in the successive steps of map-based cloning approaches, including diploid/polyploid syntenic shuttle mapping with two model diploid species (sorghum and rice) and haplotype-specific chromosome walking. Their applications allowed us (i) to develop a high-resolution map including markers at 0.28 and 0.14 cM on both sides and 13 markers cosegregating with Bru1 and (ii) to develop a physical map of the target haplotype that still includes two gaps at this stage due to the discovery of an insertion specific to this haplotype. These approaches will pave the way for the development of future map-based cloning approaches for sugarcane and other complex polyploid species.

Variation in Infection Capacity and in Virulence Exists Between Genotypes of Sugarcane yellow leaf virus.

Two experiments, one in Guadeloupe and one in Réunion Island, were performed to transmit different genotypes of Sugarcane yellow leaf virus (SCYLV) to eight sugarcane cultivars differing in resistance to infection by the virus and to yellow leaf. Transmission was attempted from SCYLV-infected sugarcane plants or leaves to healthy tissue-cultured plantlets grown in vitro and with the aphid vector Melanaphis sacchari. After inoculation and elimination of insects with an insecticide, plantlets were transferred to Montpellier, France and grown in a greenhouse. Plants were tested for presence of SCYLV by tissue-blot immunoassay and reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction after 5 to 6 months of growth. SCYLV genotypes BRA-PER, CUB, and REU were detected in 47, 62, and 39% of plants inoculated with these genotypes in Guadeloupe, respectively. SCYLV genotypes BRA-PER and REU and a mixed infection of genotypes BRA-PER and REU were detected in 56, 33, and 42% of plants inoculated with these genotypes in Réunion Island, respectively. Genotypes BRA-PER and CUB could be transmitted to all eight sugarcane cultivars, but genotype REU could never be transmitted to resistant sugarcane cvs. H78-4153 and H78-3567. SCYLV genotype REU was transmitted successfully to sugarcane cv. R570 in Guadeloupe, but not in Réunion Island. Genotypes BRA-PER and CUB induced yellow leaf symptoms in susceptible or highly susceptible sugarcane cultivars, whereas genotype REU induced very few symptoms. SCYLV was not found in several symptomatic plants, suggesting an association of disease with undetectable populations of the virus or a nonviral cause. This is the first report of variation in infection capacity and in virulence of SCYLV.

Geographical Distribution of Four Sugarcane yellow leaf virus Genotypes.

Specific primer pairs were designed to distinguish four genotypes (BRA for Brazil, CUB for Cuba, PER for Peru, and REU for Réunion Island) of Sugarcane yellow leaf virus (SCYLV) by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). A unique genome fragment was amplified from each genotype, with the exception of genotypes BRA and PER that are phylogenetically relatively close and were designated genotype BRA-PER. These RT-PCR primers were then used to identify the SCYLV genotype(s) present in 18 different sugarcane growing locations in the world, and 245 leaf samples infected by the virus were analyzed. Most samples were infected by only one of the three genotypes, but mixed infections occurred. Genotype BRA-PER was found in all sugarcane growing locations, whereas genotypes CUB and REU were each found in four geographical locations only. Genotypes BRA-PER, CUB, and REU were all three detected in locally bred sugarcane cultivars in Guadeloupe, indicating local transmission of these genotypes. In contrast, only genotypes BRA-PER and CUB were found in locally bred cultivars in Brazil, whereas genotype REU was detected in this country in cultivar R570 imported from Réunion. Similarly, genotypes BRA-PER and REU are both present in Réunion, but genotype BRA-PER has not, as of yet, spread on this island. Presence of several SCYLV genotypes in Brazil, Colombia, Guadeloupe, Mauritius, and Réunion suggests different virus introductions and/or different evolution histories of the virus after its introduction into a new environment.

Albicidin pathotoxin produced by Xanthomonas albilineans is encoded by three large PKS and NRPS genes present in a gene cluster also containing several putative modifying, regulatory, and resistance genes.

Xanthomonas albilineans, which causes leaf scald disease of sugarcane, produces a highly potent pathotoxin called albicidin. We report here sequencing and homology analysis of the major gene cluster, XALB1 (55,839 bp), and a second, smaller region, XALB2 (2,986 bp), involved in albicidin biosynthesis. XALB1 contains 20 open reading frames, including i) three large genes with a modular architecture characteristic of polyketide synthases (PKSs) and nonribosomal peptide synthases (NRPSs) and ii) several putative modifying, regulatory, and resistance genes. Sequencing and complementation studies of six albicidin-defective mutants enabled us to confirm the involvement of the three PKS and NRPS genes encoded by XALB1 in albicidin production. XALB2 contains only one gene that is required for post-translational activation of PKS and NRPS enzymes, confirming the involvement of these enzymes in albicidin biosynthesis. In silico analysis of these three PKS or NRPS enzymes allowed us to propose a model for the albicidin backbone assembly and to gain insight into the structural features of this pathotoxin. This is the first description of a complete mixed PKS-NRPS gene cluster for toxin production in the genus Xanthomonas.

Scopoletin expression in elicitor-treated and tobacco mosaic virus-infected tobacco plants.

Localized acquired resistance (LAR) characterizes a narrow zone of living cells expressing strong defense responses and surrounding cells undergoing a hypersensitive response (HR). In Samsun NN tobacco plants, tissues undergoing tobacco mosaic virus-induced or elicitor-induced LAR exhibit a strong blue fluorescence under UV light. We have shown that scopoletin and its glucoside, scopolin, accounted for the fluorescence: (1) both compounds were identified after extraction and purification by thin layer and high performance liquid chromatography; (2) there was a strict correlation between the occurrence of fluorescence and accumulation of high amounts of scopoletin; and (3) infiltration of commercial scopoletin caused a similar fluorescence to that occurring in LAR tissues. There was a 20-fold increase in scopoletin levels in LAR tissues compared to tissues treated with a non-HR dose of elicitor, while PR1 protein accumulated in similar amounts in both types of tissues. Scopoletin was able to suppress the elicitor-induced HR only when co-infiltrated with very low HR-dose of elicitor. These two observations suggested that, although scopoletin alone would not be able to control the development of the HR through its known antioxidant activity, it may nevertheless participate to such function of LAR tissues in combination with other antioxidant molecules.

A pharmacological approach to test the diffusible signal activity of reactive oxygen intermediates in elicitor-treated tobacco leaves.

The capacity of H(2)O(2), the most stable of the reactive oxygen species (ROI), to diffuse freely across biological membranes and to signal gene expression suggests that H(2)O(2) could function as a short-lived second messenger diffusing from cell to cell. We tested this hypothesis in tobacco plants treated with a glycoprotein elicitor. Applied at 50 nM, it induces H(2)O(2) accumulation and the hypersensitive response restricted to the infiltrated zone 1 tissue. Stimulation of a set of defense responses also occurs in the surrounding zone 2 tissue without diffusion of the elicitor. ROI levels in zone 1 were modulated using N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) as a ROI scavenger and Rose Bengal (RB) as a ROI generator. We found that ROI appeared to act as signalling intermediates in pathways leading to salicylic acid accumulation, to PR1, PR5 and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutarylCoA reductase expression in glycoprotein-treated zone 1 tissues. Compared to the treatment with the elicitor alone, co-infiltration of the glycoprotein and NAC increased the surface of zone 2 showing PR1 and O-methyltransferase expression. Application of RB had the opposite effect. The data suggest that, in our system, ROI did not act as a cell-to-cell diffusible signal to activate PR protein and O-methyltransferase expression in zone 2.