Multiple functions of the scaffold protein Discs large 5 in the control of growth, cell polarity and cell adhesion in Drosophila melanogaster.

BACKGROUND: Scaffold proteins support a variety of key processes during animal development. Mutant mouse for the MAGUK protein Discs large 5 (Dlg5) presents a general growth impairment and moderate morphogenetic defects. RESULTS: Here, we generated null mutants for Drosophila Dlg5 and show that it owns similar functions in growth and epithelial architecture. Dlg5 is required for growth at a cell autonomous level in several tissues and at the organism level, affecting cell size and proliferation. Our results are consistent with Dlg5 modulating hippo pathway in the wing disc, including the impact on cell size, a defect that is reproduced by the loss of yorkie. However, other observations indicate that Dlg5 regulates growth by at least another way that may involve Myc protein but nor PI3K neither TOR pathways. Moreover, epithelia cells mutant for Dlg5 also show a reduction of apical domain determinants, though not sufficient to induce a complete loss of cell polarity. Dlg5 is also essential, in the same cells, for the presence at Adherens junctions of N-Cadherin, but not E-Cadherin. Genetic analyses indicate that junction and polarity defects are independent. CONCLUSIONS: Together our data show that Dlg5 own several conserved functions that are independent of each other in regulating growth, cell polarity and cell adhesion. Moreover, they reveal a differential regulation of E-cadherin and N-cadherin apical localization.

Genes Involved in Drosophila melanogaster Ovarian Function Are Highly Conserved Throughout Evolution.

This work presents a systematic approach to study the conservation of genes between fruit flies and mammals. We have listed 971 Drosophila genes involved in female reproduction at the ovarian level and systematically looked for orthologs in the Ciona, zebrafish, coelacanth, lizard, chicken, and mouse. Depending on the species, the percentage of these Drosophila genes with at least one ortholog varies between 69% and 78%. In comparison, only 42% of all the Drosophila genes have an ortholog in the mouse genome (P < 0.0001), suggesting a dramatically higher evolutionary conservation of ovarian genes. The 177 Drosophila genes that have no ortholog in mice and other vertebrates correspond to genes that are involved in mechanisms of oogenesis that are specific to the fruit fly or the insects. Among 759 genes with at least one ortholog in the zebrafish, 73 have an expression enriched in the ovary in this species (RNA-seq data). Among 760 genes that have at least one ortholog in the mouse; 76 and 11 orthologs are reported to be preferentially and exclusively expressed in the mouse ovary, respectively (based on the UniGene expressed sequence tag database). Several of them are already known to play a key role in murine oogenesis and/or to be enriched in the mouse/zebrafish oocyte, whereas others have remained unreported. We have investigated, by RNA-seq and real-time quantitative PCR, the exclusive ovarian expression of 10 genes in fish and mammals. Overall, we have found several novel candidates potentially involved in mammalian oogenesis by an evolutionary approach and using the fruit fly as an animal model.

Drosophila LKB1 is required for the assembly of the polarized actin structure that allows spermatid individualization.

In mammals, a testis-specific isoform of the protein kinase LKB1 is required for spermiogenesis, but its exact function and specificity are not known. Human LKB1 rescues the functions of Drosophila Lkb1 essential for viability, but these males are sterile, revealing a new function for this genes in fly. We also identified a testis-specific transcript generated by an alternative promoter and that only differs by a longer 5'UTR. We show that dLKB1 is required in the germline for the formation of the actin cone, the polarized structure that allows spermatid individualization and cytoplasm excess extrusion during spermiogenesis. Three of the nine LKB1 classical targets in the Drosophila genome (AMPK, NUAK and KP78b) are required for proper spermiogenesis, but later than dLKB1. dLkb1 mutant phenotype is reminiscent of that of myosin V mutants, and both proteins show a dynamic localization profile before actin cone formation. Together, these data highlight a new dLKB1 function and suggest that dLKB1 posttranscriptional regulation in testis and involvement in spermatid morphogenesis are evolutionarily conserved features.

Transforming Growth Factor ß/activin signalling induces epithelial cell flattening during Drosophila oogenesis.

Although the regulation of epithelial morphogenesis is essential for the formation of tissues and organs in multicellular organisms, little is known about how signalling pathways control cell shape changes in space and time. In the Drosophila ovarian epithelium, the transition from a cuboidal to a squamous shape is accompanied by a wave of cell flattening and by the ordered remodelling of E-cadherin-based adherens junctions. We show that activation of the TGFß pathway is crucial to determine the timing, the degree and the dynamic of cell flattening. Within these cells, TGFß signalling controls cell-autonomously the formation of Actin filament and the localisation of activated Myosin II, indicating that internal forces are generated and used to remodel AJ and to promote cytoskeleton rearrangement. Our results also reveal that TGFß signalling controls Notch activity and that its functions are partly executed through Notch. Thus, we demonstrate that the cells that undergo the cuboidal-to-squamous transition produce active cell-shaping mechanisms, rather than passively flattening in response to a global force generated by the growth of the underlying cells. Thus, our work on TGFß signalling provides new insights into the mechanisms through which signal transduction cascades orchestrate cell shape changes to generate proper organ structure.

Drosophila distal-less and Rotund bind a single enhancer ensuring reliable and robust bric-a-brac2 expression in distinct limb morphogenetic fields.

Most identified Drosophila appendage-patterning genes encode DNA-binding proteins, whose cross-regulatory interactions remain to be better characterized at the molecular level, notably by studying their direct binding to tissue-specific transcriptional enhancers. A fine-tuned spatio-temporal expression of bric-a-brac2 (bab2) along concentric rings is essential for proper proximo-distal (P-D) differentiation of legs and antennae. However, within the genetic interaction landscape governing limb development, no transcription factor directly controlling bab2 expression has been identified to date. Using site-targeted GFP reporter assay and BAC recombineering, we show here that restricted bab2 expression in leg and antennal imaginal discs relies on a single 567-bp-long cis-regulatory module (CRM), termed LAE (for leg and antennal enhancer). We show that this CRM (i) is necessary and sufficient to ensure normal bab2 activity in developing leg and antenna, and (ii) is structurally and functionally conserved among Drosophilidae. Through deletion and site-directed mutagenesis approaches, we identified within the LAE essential sequence motifs required in both leg and antennal tissues. Using genetic and biochemical tests, we establish that in the LAE (i) a key TAAT-rich activator motif interacts with the homeodomain P-D protein Distal-less (Dll) and (ii) a single T-rich activator motif binds the C2H2 zinc-finger P-D protein Rotund (Rn), leading to bab2 up-regulation respectively in all or specifically in the proximal-most ring(s), both in leg and antenna. Joint ectopic expression of Dll and Rn is sufficient to cell-autonomously activate endogenous bab2 and LAE-driven reporter expression in wing and haltere cells. Our findings indicate that accuracy, reliability and robustness of developmental gene expression do not necessarily require cis-regulatory information redundancy.

A two-step Notch-dependant mechanism controls the selection of the polar cell pair in Drosophila oogenesis.

Organisers control the patterning and growth of many tissues and organs. Correctly regulating the size of these organisers is crucial for proper differentiation to occur. Organiser activity in the epithelium of the Drosophila ovarian follicle resides in a pair of cells called polar cells. It is known that these two cells are selected from a cluster of equivalent cells. However, the mechanisms responsible for this selection are still unclear. Here, we present evidence that the selection of the two cells is not random but, by contrast, depends on an atypical two-step Notch-dependent mechanism. We show that this sequential process begins when one cell becomes refractory to Notch activation and is selected as the initial polar cell. This cell then produces a Delta signal that induces a high level of Notch activation in one other cell within the cluster. This Notch activity prevents elimination by apoptosis, allowing its selection as the second polar cell. Therefore, the mechanism used to select precisely two cells from among an equivalence group involves an inductive Delta signal that originates from one cell, itself unable to respond to Notch activation, and results in one other cell being selected to adopt the same fate. Given its properties, this two-step Notch-dependent mechanism represents a novel aspect of Notch action.

Interaction between Polo and BicD proteins links oocyte determination and meiosis control in Drosophila.

Meiosis is a specialized cell cycle limited to the gametes in Metazoa. In Drosophila, oocyte determination and meiosis control are interdependent processes, and BicD appears to play a key role in both. However, the exact mechanism of how BicD-dependent polarized transport could influence meiosis and vice versa remains an open question. In this article, we report that the cell cycle regulatory kinase Polo binds to BicD protein during oogenesis. Polo is expressed in all cells during cyst formation before specifically localizing to the oocyte. This is the earliest known example of asymmetric localization of a cell-cycle regulator in this process. This localization is dependent on BicD and the Dynein complex. Loss- and gain-of-function experiments showed that Polo has two independent functions. On the one hand, it acts as a trigger for meiosis. On the other hand, it is independently required, in a cell-autonomous manner, for the activation of BicD-dependent transport. Moreover, we show that Polo overexpression can rescue a hypomorphic mutation of BicD by restoring its localization and its function, suggesting that the requirement for Polo in polarized transport acts through regulation of BicD. Taken together, our data indicate the existence of a positive feedback loop between BicD and Polo, and we propose that this loop represents a functional link between oocyte specification and the control of meiosis.

The Drosophila Toucan protein is a new mitotic microtubule-associated protein required for spindle microtubule stability.

Mitotic spindle dynamics are highly dependent on proteins that interact with microtubules to influence their organization or stability. Here, we show that the Drosophila Toucan protein interacts directly with microtubules. Its localization to the microtubule network when it is expressed in mammalian cells and its direct interaction with microtubules in vitro are dependent on its central basic domain. Moreover, Toc expression in mammalian cells strongly protects microtubules from depolymerization. By using in vivo inducible RNAi in syncytial embryos, we generated a dose-sensitive loss of function of toucan, demonstrating that this technique is an efficient method for inactivating a maternal transcript. This enabled us to accurately characterize several new mitotic defects from the early to the late phases of mitosis, depending on Toucan depletion level. Toucan is required for metaphase spindle formation and centrosome anchoring to the poles. Then, during anaphase, Toc depletion affects kinetochore microtubules and therefore chromosome segregation. Toc is also necessary for central spindle formation by the interpolar microtubules. In contrast, astral microtubules are not disturbed by Toc depletion. Taken together, our results show that Toucan is a microtubule-associated protein specifically required for the stability of spindle microtubules throughout mitosis.

The Drosophila melanogaster BTB proteins bric à brac bind DNA through a composite DNA binding domain containing a pipsqueak and an AT-Hook motif.

The bric à brac (bab) locus is composed of two paralogous genes, bab1 and bab2, in Drosophila melanogaster. Bab1 and Bab2 are nuclear proteins that contain a broad complex, tramtrack, bric à brac/poxviruses and zinc-finger (BTB/POZ) domain. Many BTB/POZ proteins are transcriptional regulators of which the majority contain C(2)H(2) zinc-finger motifs. There is no detectable zinc-finger motif in either Bab protein. However, they share the Bab conserved domain (BabCD) that is highly conserved between Bab1 and Bab2, and the Bab proteins of several other species, e.g. Anopheles gambiae, Apis mellifera and Drosophila virilis. Here we show that Bab2 binds to several discrete sites on polytene chromosomes including the bab locus, and that the BabCD of both Bab1 and Bab2 binds in vitro to the cis-regulatory regions of bab1 and bab2. Our results indicate that the BabCD binds to A/T-rich regions and that its optimum binding sites contain TA or TAA repeats. The BabCD is a composite DNA binding domain with a psq motif and an AT-Hook motif; both motifs are required for DNA binding activity. Structural similarities suggest that the BabCD may bind to DNA in a similar manner as some prokaryotic recombinases.

The bric à brac locus consists of two paralogous genes encoding BTB/POZ domain proteins and acts as a homeotic and morphogenetic regulator of imaginal development in Drosophila.

The bric à brac (bab) locus acts as a homeotic and morphogenetic regulator in the development of ovaries, appendages and the abdomen. It consists of two structurally and functionally related genes, bab1 and bab2, each of which encodes a single nuclear protein. Bab1 and Bab2 have two conserved domains in common, a BTB/POZ domain and a Psq domain, a motif that characterizes a subfamily of BTB/POZ domain proteins in Drosophila. The tissue distribution of Bab1 and Bab2 overlaps, with Bab1 being expressed in a subpattern of Bab2. Analysis of a series of mutations indicates that the two bab genes have synergistic, distinct and redundant functions during imaginal development. Interestingly, several reproduction-related traits that are sexually dimorphic or show diversity among Drosophila species are highly sensitive to changes in the bab gene dose, suggesting that alterations in bab activity may contribute to evolutionary modification of sex-related morphology.

Terminal filament cell organization in the larval ovary of Drosophila melanogaster: ultrastructural observations and pattern of divisions.

The adult ovary of Drosophila is composed of approximately twenty parallel repetitive structures called ovarioles. The ovarioles appear at the prepupal stage and their formation requires the presence of stacks of discshaped cells called the terminal filaments. Terminal filaments form in a progressive manner during the third larval instar. We have looked at the beginning of formation of both the terminal filaments and ovarioles at an ultrastructural level. Moreover, we studied the pattern of division of the terminal filament cell precursors using the base analog, BrdU. Two main waves of division are observed. The first wave consists of divisions of almost all the terminal filament cell precursors during a short period of time at the transition between the second and third larval instar. The second wave, in which the precursors carry out their final divisions before differentiating, occurs gradually, going from the medial to the lateral side of the ovary during the first half of the third larval instar.