Proteome profiling of home-sampled dried blood spots reveals proteins of SARS-CoV-2 infections.

BACKGROUND: Self-sampling of dried blood spots (DBS) offers new routes to gather valuable health-related information from the general population. Yet, the utility of using deep proteome profiling from home-sampled DBS to obtain clinically relevant insights about SARS-CoV-2 infections remains largely unexplored. METHODS: Our study involved 228 individuals from the general Swedish population who used a volumetric DBS sampling device and completed questionnaires at home during spring 2020 and summer 2021. Using multi-analyte COVID-19 serology, we stratified the donors by their response phenotypes, divided them into three study sets, and analyzed 276 proteins by proximity extension assays (PEA). After normalizing the data to account for variances in layman-collected samples, we investigated the association of DBS proteomes with serology and self-reported information. RESULTS: Our three studies display highly consistent variance of protein levels and share associations of proteins with sex (e.g., MMP3) and age (e.g., GDF-15). Studying seropositive (IgG+) and seronegative (IgG-) donors from the first pandemic wave reveals a network of proteins reflecting immunity, inflammation, coagulation, and stress response. A comparison of the early-infection phase (IgM+IgG-) with the post-infection phase (IgM-IgG+) indicates several proteins from the respiratory system. In DBS from the later pandemic wave, we find that levels of a virus receptor on B-cells differ between seropositive (IgG+) and seronegative (IgG-) donors. CONCLUSIONS: Proteome analysis of volumetric self-sampled DBS facilitates precise analysis of clinically relevant proteins, including those secreted into the circulation or found on blood cells, augmenting previous COVID-19 reports with clinical blood collections. Our population surveys support the usefulness of DBS, underscoring the role of timing the sample collection to complement clinical and precision health monitoring initiatives.

The COVID-19 pandemic has posed multiple challenges to healthcare systems. A significant gap that remains is a lack of understanding of the impact of SARS-CoV-2 on individuals who did not seek or require hospitalization. To address this, we distribute self-sampling devices to random citizens, aiming to analyze how blood protein levels are affected in people who have had COVID-19 but had no or mild symptoms. Conducting multiple molecular measurements in dried blood, our study confirms clinically known markers and their relationship to infection stages, even if the donors themselves collect the sample. Our work highlights the potential of combining self-sampling with laboratory methods to provide useful information on human health. This convenient patient-centric sampling approach may potentially be useful when studying other diseases.

Expanding the GPCR-RAMP interactome.

Receptor activity-modifying proteins (RAMPs) can form complexes with G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and regulate their cellular trafficking and pharmacology. RAMP interactions have been identified for about 50 GPCRs, but only a few GPCR-RAMP complexes have been studied in detail. To elucidate a complete interactome between GPCRs and the three RAMPs, we developed a customized library of 215 Dual Epitope-Tagged (DuET) GPCRs representing all GPCR subfamilies. Using a multiplexed suspension bead array (SBA) assay, we identified 122 GPCRs that showed strong evidence for interaction with at least one RAMP. We screened for native interactions in three cell lines and found 23 GPCRs that formed complexes with RAMPs. Mapping the GPCR-RAMP interactome expands the current system-wide functional characterization of RAMP-interacting GPCRs to inform the design of selective GPCR-targeted therapeutics.

Peptide Variant Detection by a Living Yeast Biosensor via an Epitope-Selective Protease.

We previously demonstrated that we could hijack the fungal pheromone signaling pathway to provide a living yeast biosensor where peptide biomarkers were recognized by G-protein-coupled receptors and engineered to transcribe a readout. Here, we demonstrated that the protease could be reintroduced to the biosensor to provide a simple mechanism for distinguishing single-amino-acid changes in peptide ligands that, otherwise, would likely be difficult to detect using binding-based assays. We characterized the dose-response curves for five fungal pheromone G-protein-coupled receptors, peptides, and proteases-Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida albicans, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Schizosaccharomyces octosporus, and Schizosaccharomyces japonicus. Alanine scanning was carried out for the most selective of these-S. cerevisiae and C. albicans-with and without the protease. Two peptide variants were discovered, which showed diminished cleavage by the protease (CaPep2A and CaPep2A13A). Those peptides were then distinguished by utilizing the biosensor strains with and without the protease, which selectively cleaved and altered the apparent concentration of peptide required for half-maximal activation for 2 peptides-CaPep and CaPep13A, respectively-by more than one order of magnitude. These results support the hypothesis that the living yeast biosensor with a sequence-specific protease can translate single-amino-acid changes into more than one order of magnitude apparent shift in the concentration of peptide required for half-maximal activation. With further engineering by computational modeling and directed evolution, the biosensor could likely distinguish a wide variety of peptide sequences beyond the alanine scanning carried out here. In the future, we envision incorporating proteases into our living yeast biosensor for use as a point of care diagnostic, a scalable communication language, and other applications.

Multiplexed selectivity screening of anti-GPCR antibodies.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) control critical cellular signaling pathways. Therapeutic agents including anti-GPCR antibodies (Abs) are being developed to modulate GPCR function. However, validating the selectivity of anti-GPCR Abs is challenging because of sequence similarities among individual receptors within GPCR subfamilies. To address this challenge, we developed a multiplexed immunoassay to test >400 anti-GPCR Abs from the Human Protein Atlas targeting a customized library of 215 expressed and solubilized GPCRs representing all GPCR subfamilies. We found that ~61% of Abs tested were selective for their intended target, ~11% bound off-target, and ~28% did not bind to any GPCR. Antigens of on-target Abs were, on average, significantly longer, more disordered, and less likely to be buried in the interior of the GPCR protein than the other Abs. These results provide important insights into the immunogenicity of GPCR epitopes and form a basis for designing therapeutic Abs and for detecting pathological auto-Abs against GPCRs.

Itch receptor MRGPRX4 interacts with the receptor activity-modifying proteins.

Cholestatic itch is a severe and debilitating symptom in liver diseases with limited treatment options. The class A G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) Mas-related GPCR subtype X4 (MRGPRX4) has been identified as a receptor for bile acids, which are potential cholestatic pruritogens. An increasing number of GPCRs have been shown to interact with receptor activity-modifying proteins (RAMPs), which can modulate different aspects of GPCR biology. Using a combination of multiplexed immunoassay and proximity ligation assay, we show that MRGPRX4 interacts with RAMPs. The interaction of MRGPRX4 with RAMP2, but not RAMP1 or 3, causes attenuation of basal and agonist-dependent signaling, which correlates with a decrease of MRGPRX4 cell surface expression as measured using a quantitative NanoBRET pulse-chase assay. Finally, we use AlphaFold Multimer to predict the structure of the MRGPRX4-RAMP2 complex. The discovery that RAMP2 regulates MRGPRX4 may have direct implications for future drug development for cholestatic itch.

Bead-Based Assays for Validating Proteomic Profiles in Body Fluids.

Protein biomarkers in biological fluids represent an important resource for improving the clinical management of diseases. Current proteomics technologies are capable of performing high-throughput and multiplex profiling in different types of fluids, often leading to the shortlisting of tens of candidate biomarkers per study. However, before reaching any clinical setting, these discoveries require thorough validation and an assay that would be suitable for routine analyses. In the path from biomarker discovery to validation, the performance of the assay implemented for the intended protein quantification is extremely critical toward achieving reliable and reproducible results. Development of robust sandwich immunoassays for individual candidates is challenging and labor and resource intensive, and multiplies when evaluating a panel of interesting candidates at the same time. Here we describe a versatile pipeline that facilitates the systematic and parallel development of multiple sandwich immunoassays using a bead-based technology.

Multianalyte serology in home-sampled blood enables an unbiased assessment of the immune response against SARS-CoV-2.

Serological testing is essential to curb the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, most assays are still limited to single analytes and samples collected within healthcare. Thus, we establish a multianalyte and multiplexed approach to reliably profile IgG and IgM levels against several versions of SARS-CoV-2 proteins (S, RBD, N) in home-sampled dried blood spots (DBS). We analyse DBS collected during spring of 2020 from 878 random and undiagnosed individuals from the population in Stockholm, Sweden, and use classification approaches to estimate an accumulated seroprevalence of 12.5% (95% CI: 10.3%-14.7%). This includes 5.4% of the samples being IgG+IgM+ against several SARS-CoV-2 proteins, as well as 2.1% being IgG-IgM+ and 5.0% being IgG+IgM- for the virus' S protein. Subjects classified as IgG+ for several SARS-CoV-2 proteins report influenza-like symptoms more frequently than those being IgG+ for only the S protein (OR = 6.1; p < 0.001). Among all seropositive cases, 30% are asymptomatic. Our strategy enables an accurate individual-level and multiplexed assessment of antibodies in home-sampled blood, assisting our understanding about the undiagnosed seroprevalence and diversity of the immune response against the coronavirus.

Interaction of silver nanoparticles with plasma transport proteins: A systematic study on impacts of particle size, shape and surface functionalization.

Metallic nanoparticles are an important and widely used materials in development of nano-enabled medicine. For that reason, their interaction with biological molecules has to be systematically examined, as use of nanoparticles can lead to altered biological functions. In this study, we evaluated the interaction between silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and two important plasma transport proteins - albumin and α-1-acid glycoprotein. To investigate comprehensively how different physico-chemical properties impact interaction of proteins with nanosurface, AgNPs of different size, shape and surface coating was prepared. The study was conducted using UV-Vis absorption, fluorescence, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, circular dichroism spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, dynamic and electrophoretic light scattering techniques. The results showed significant complexities of the nano-bio interface and binding affinities of proteins onto surface of different AgNPs, which were affected by both AgNPs and protein properties. The most significant role on AgNPs-protein interaction had the coating agents used for AgNPs surface stabilization. Our findings should improve safe-by-design approach to development of the metallic nanomaterials for medical use.

Integration of molecular profiles in a longitudinal wellness profiling cohort.

An important aspect of precision medicine is to probe the stability in molecular profiles among healthy individuals over time. Here, we sample a longitudinal wellness cohort with 100 healthy individuals and analyze blood molecular profiles including proteomics, transcriptomics, lipidomics, metabolomics, autoantibodies and immune cell profiling, complemented with gut microbiota composition and routine clinical chemistry. Overall, our results show high variation between individuals across different molecular readouts, while the intra-individual baseline variation is low. The analyses show that each individual has a unique and stable plasma protein profile throughout the study period and that many individuals also show distinct profiles with regards to the other omics datasets, with strong underlying connections between the blood proteome and the clinical chemistry parameters. In conclusion, the results support an individual-based definition of health and show that comprehensive omics profiling in a longitudinal manner is a path forward for precision medicine.

Profiles of histidine-rich glycoprotein associate with age and risk of all-cause mortality.

Despite recognizing aging as a common risk factor of many human diseases, little is known about its molecular traits. To identify age-associated proteins circulating in human blood, we screened 156 individuals aged 50-92 using exploratory and multiplexed affinity proteomics assays. Profiling eight additional study sets (N = 3,987), performing antibody validation, and conducting a meta-analysis revealed a consistent age association (P = 6.61 × 10-6) for circulating histidine-rich glycoprotein (HRG). Sequence variants of HRG influenced how the protein was recognized in the immunoassays. Indeed, only the HRG profiles affected by rs9898 were associated with age and predicted the risk of mortality (HR = 1.25 per SD; 95% CI = 1.12-1.39; P = 6.45 × 10-5) during a follow-up period of 8.5 yr after blood sampling (IQR = 7.7-9.3 yr). Our affinity proteomics analysis found associations between the particular molecular traits of circulating HRG with age and all-cause mortality. The distinct profiles of this multipurpose protein could serve as an accessible and informative indicator of the physiological processes related to biological aging.

Facets of individual-specific health signatures determined from longitudinal plasma proteome profiling.

BACKGROUND: Precision medicine approaches aim to tackle diseases on an individual level through molecular profiling. Despite the growing knowledge about diseases and the reported diversity of molecular phenotypes, the descriptions of human health on an individual level have been far less elaborate. METHODS: To provide insights into the longitudinal protein signatures of well-being, we profiled blood plasma collected over one year from 101 clinically healthy individuals using multiplexed antibody assays. After applying an antibody validation scheme, we utilized > 700 protein profiles for in-depth analyses of the individuals' short-term health trajectories. FINDINGS: We found signatures of circulating proteomes to be highly individual-specific. Considering technical and longitudinal variability, we observed that 49% of the protein profiles were stable over one year. We also identified eight networks of proteins in which 11-242 proteins covaried over time. For each participant, there were unique protein profiles of which some could be explained by associations to genetic variants. INTERPRETATION: This observational and non-interventional study identifyed noticeable diversity among clinically healthy subjects, and facets of individual-specific signatures emerged by monitoring the variability of the circulating proteomes over time. To enable more personal hence precise assessments of health states, longitudinal profiling of circulating proteomes can provide a valuable component for precision medicine approaches. FUNDING: This work was supported by the Erling Persson Foundation, the Swedish Heart and Lung Foundation, the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, Science for Life Laboratory, and the Swedish Research Council.

The human secretome.

The proteins secreted by human cells (collectively referred to as the secretome) are important not only for the basic understanding of human biology but also for the identification of potential targets for future diagnostics and therapies. Here, we present a comprehensive analysis of proteins predicted to be secreted in human cells, which provides information about their final localization in the human body, including the proteins actively secreted to peripheral blood. The analysis suggests that a large number of the proteins of the secretome are not secreted out of the cell, but instead are retained intracellularly, whereas another large group of proteins were identified that are predicted to be retained locally at the tissue of expression and not secreted into the blood. Proteins detected in the human blood by mass spectrometry-based proteomics and antibody-based immunoassays are also presented with estimates of their concentrations in the blood. The results are presented in an updated version 19 of the Human Protein Atlas in which each gene encoding a secretome protein is annotated to provide an open-access knowledge resource of the human secretome, including body-wide expression data, spatial localization data down to the single-cell and subcellular levels, and data about the presence of proteins that are detectable in the blood.

Multiplexed analysis of the secretin-like GPCR-RAMP interactome.

Receptor activity-modifying proteins (RAMPs) have been shown to modulate the functions of several G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), but potential direct interactions among the three known RAMPs and hundreds of GPCRs have never been investigated. Focusing mainly on the secretin-like family of GPCRs, we engineered epitope-tagged GPCRs and RAMPs, and developed a multiplexed suspension bead array (SBA) immunoassay to detect GPCR-RAMP complexes from detergent-solubilized lysates. Using 64 antibodies raised against the native proteins and 4 antibodies targeting the epitope tags, we mapped the interactions among 23 GPCRs and 3 RAMPs. We validated nearly all previously reported secretin-like GPCR-RAMP interactions, and also found previously unidentified RAMP interactions with additional secretin-like GPCRs, chemokine receptors, and orphan receptors. The results provide a complete interactome of secretin-like GPCRs with RAMPs. The SBA strategy will be useful to search for additional GPCR-RAMP complexes and other interacting membrane protein pairs in cell lines and tissues.

Systematic Development of Sandwich Immunoassays for the Plasma Secretome.

The plasma proteome offers a clinically useful window into human health. Recent advances from highly multiplexed assays now call for appropriate pipelines to validate individual candidates. Here, a workflow is developed to build dual binder sandwich immunoassays (SIA) and for proteins predicted to be secreted into plasma. Utilizing suspension bead arrays, ≈1800 unique antibody pairs are first screened against 209 proteins with recombinant proteins as well as EDTA plasma. Employing 624 unique antibodies, dilution-dependent curves in plasma and concentration-dependent curves of full-length proteins for 102 (49%) of the targets are obtained. For 22 protein assays, the longitudinal, interindividual, and technical performance is determined in a set of plasma samples collected from 18 healthy subjects every third month over 1 year. Finally, 14 of these assays are compared with with SIAs composed of other binders, proximity extension assays, and affinity-free targeted mass spectrometry. The workflow provides a multiplexed approach to screen for SIA pairs that suggests using at least three antibodies per target. This design is applicable for a wider range of targets of the plasma proteome, and the assays can be applied for discovery but also to validate emerging candidates derived from other platforms.

Detection of autoantibodies against cancer-testis antigens in non-small cell lung cancer.

OBJECTIVES: Cancer-testis antigens (CTAs) are defined as proteins that are specifically expressed in testis or placenta and their expression is frequently activated in cancer. Due to their ability to induce an immune response, CTAs may serve as suitable targets for immunotherapy. The aim of this study was to evaluate if there is reactivity against CTAs in the plasma of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients through the detection of circulating antibodies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: To comprehensively analyze autoantibodies against CTAs the multiplexing capacities of suspension bead array technology was used. Bead arrays were created with 120 protein fragments, representing 112 CTAs. Reactivity profiles were measured in plasma samples from 133 NSCLC patients and 57 cases with benign lung diseases. RESULTS: Altogether reactivity against 69 antigens, representing 81 CTAs, was demonstrated in at least one of the analyzed samples. Twenty-nine of the antigens (45 CTAs) demonstrated exclusive reactivity in NSCLC samples. Reactivity against cancer-testis antigen family 47; member A (CT47A) genes, P antigen family member 3 (PAGE3), variable charge X-linked (VCX), melanoma antigen family B1 (MAGEB1), lin-28 homolog B (LIN28B) and chromosome 12 open reading frame 54 (C12orf54) were only found in NSCLC patients at a frequency of 1%-4%. The presence of autoantibodies towards these six antigens was confirmed in an independent group of 34 NSCLC patients. CONCLUSION: We identified autoantibodies against CTAs in the plasma of lung cancer patients. The reactivity pattern of autoantibodies was higher in cancer patients compared to the benign group, stable over time, but low in frequency of occurrence. The findings suggest that some CTAs are immunogenic and that these properties can be utilized as immune targets.

Current applications of antibody microarrays.

The concept of antibody microarrays is one of the most versatile approaches within multiplexed immunoassay technologies. These types of arrays have increasingly become an attractive tool for the exploratory detection and study of protein abundance, function, pathways, and potential drug targets. Due to the properties of the antibody microarrays and their potential use in basic research and clinical analytics, various types of antibody microarrays have already been developed. In spite of the growing number of studies utilizing this technique, few reviews about antibody microarray technology have been presented to reflect the quality and future uses of the generated data. In this review, we provide a summary of the recent applications of antibody microarray techniques in basic biology and clinical studies, providing insights into the current trends and future of protein analysis.

High-Density Serum/Plasma Reverse Phase Protein Arrays.

In-depth exploration and characterization of human serum and plasma proteomes is an attractive strategy for the identification of potential prognostic or diagnostic biomarkers. The possibility of analyzing larger numbers of samples in a high-throughput fashion has markedly increased with affinity-based microarrays, thus providing higher statistical power to these biomarker studies. Here, we describe a protocol for high-density serum and plasma reverse phase protein arrays (RPPAs). We demonstrate how a biobank of 12,392 samples was immobilized and analyzed on a single microarray slide, allowing high-quality profiling of abundant target proteins across all samples in one assay.

Surface coating affects behavior of metallic nanoparticles in a biological environment.

Silver (AgNPs) and maghemite, i.e., superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) are promising candidates for new medical applications, which implies the need for strict information regarding their physicochemical characteristics and behavior in a biological environment. The currently developed AgNPs and SPIONs encompass a myriad of sizes and surface coatings, which affect NPs properties and may improve their biocompatibility. This study is aimed to evaluate the effects of surface coating on colloidal stability and behavior of AgNPs and SPIONs in modelled biological environments using dynamic and electrophoretic light scattering techniques, as well as transmission electron microscopy to visualize the behavior of the NP. Three dispersion media were investigated: ultrapure water (UW), biological cell culture medium without addition of protein (BM), and BM supplemented with common serum protein (BMP). The obtained results showed that different coating agents on AgNPs and SPIONs produced different stabilities in the same biological media. The combination of negative charge and high adsorption strength of coating agents proved to be important for achieving good stability of metallic NPs in electrolyte-rich fluids. Most importantly, the presence of proteins provided colloidal stabilization to metallic NPs in biological fluids regardless of their chemical composition, surface structure and surface charge. In addition, an assessment of AgNP and SPION behavior in real biological fluids, rat whole blood (WhBl) and blood plasma (BlPl), revealed that the composition of a biological medium is crucial for the colloidal stability and type of metallic NP transformation. Our results highlight the importance of physicochemical characterization and stability evaluation of metallic NPs in a variety of biological systems including as many NP properties as possible.

Response of biochemical biomarkers in the aquatic crustacean Daphnia magna exposed to silver nanoparticles.

The proliferation of silver nanoparticle (AgNP) production and use owing to their antimicrobial properties justifies the need to examine the resulting environmental impacts. The discharge of biocidal nanoparticles to water bodies may pose a threat to aquatic species. This study evaluated the effects of citrate-coated AgNPs on the standardized test organism Daphnia magna Straus clone MBP996 by means of biochemical biomarker response. AgNP toxicity was compared against the toxic effect of Ag(+). The toxicity endpoints were calculated based upon measured Ag concentrations in exposure media. For AgNPs, the NOAEC and LOAEC values at 48 h were 5 and 7 µg Ag/L, respectively, while these values were 0.5 and 1 µg Ag/L, respectively, for Ag(+). The EC50 at 48 h was computed to be 12.4 ± 0.6 and 2.6 ± 0.1 µg Ag/L for AgNPs and Ag(+), respectively, with 95 % confidence intervals of 12.1-12.8 and 2.3-2.8 µg Ag/L, respectively. These results indicate significant less toxicity of AgNP compared to free Ag(+) ions. Five biomarkers were evaluated in Daphnia magna neonates after acute exposure to Ag(+) or AgNPs, including glutathione (GSH) level, reactive oxygen species (ROS) content, and catalase (CAT), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. AgNPs induced toxicity and oxidative stress responses in D. magna neonates at tenfold higher concentrations than Ag. Biochemical methods revealed a clear increase in AChE activity, decreased ROS level, increased GSH level and CAT activity, but no significant changes in SOD activity. As Ag(+) may dissolve from AgNPs, these two types of Ag could act synergistically and produce a greater toxic response. The observed remarkably high toxicity of AgNPs (in the parts-per-billion range) to crustaceans indicates that these organisms are a vulnerable link in the aquatic food chain with regard to contamination by nanosilver. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.