Vitamin K content of Australian-grown horticultural commodities.

Vitamin K is a multi-function vitamin that has emerging roles in bone, brain and vascular health. Vitamin K composition data remain limited globally and Australia has lacked nationally representative data for vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) in horticultural commodities. Primary samples (n = 927) of 90 Australian-grown fruit, vegetable and nut commodities were purchased in three Australian cities. We measured vitamin K1/phylloquinone in duplicate in 95 composite samples using liquid chromatography with electrospray ionisation-tandem mass spectrometry. The greatest mean concentrations of vitamin K1/phylloquinone were found in kale (565 µg/100 g), baby spinach (255 µg/100 g) and Brussels sprouts (195 µg/100 g). The data contribute to the global collection of vitamin K food composition data. They add to the evidence that vitamin K1/phylloquinone concentrations vary markedly between geographic regions, supporting development of region-specific datasets for national food composition databases that do not yet contain data for vitamin K. Such data are needed globally.

Evidence of low vitamin D intakes in the Australian population points to a need for data-driven nutrition policy for improving population vitamin D status.

BACKGROUND: Nearly one in four Australian adults is vitamin D deficient (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations [25(OH)D] < 50 nmol L-1 ) and current vitamin D intakes in the Australian population are unknown. Internationally, vitamin D intakes are commonly below recommendations, although estimates generally rely on food composition data that do not include 25(OH)D. We aimed to estimate usual vitamin D intakes in the Australian population. METHODS: Nationally representative food consumption data were collected for Australians aged ≥ 2 years (n = 12,153) as part of the cross-sectional 2011-2013 Australian Health Survey (AHS). New analytical vitamin D food composition data for vitamin D3 , 25(OH)D3 , vitamin D2 and 25(OH)D2 were mapped to foods and beverages that were commonly consumed by AHS participants. Usual vitamin D intakes (µg day-1 ) by sex and age group were estimated using the National Cancer Institute method. RESULTS: Assuming a 25(OH)D bioactivity factor of 1, mean daily intakes of vitamin D ranged between 1.84 and 3.25 µg day-1 . Compared to the estimated average requirement of 10 µg day-1 recommended by the Institute of Medicine, more than 95% of people had inadequate vitamin D intakes. We estimated that no participant exceeded the Institute of Medicine's Upper Level of Intake (63-100 µg day-1 , depending on age group). CONCLUSIONS: Usual vitamin D intakes in Australia are low. This evidence, paired with the high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Australia, suggests that data-driven nutrition policy is required to safely increase dietary intakes of vitamin D and improve vitamin D status at the population level.

Vitamin K content of cheese, yoghurt and meat products in Australia.

Vitamin K is vital for normal blood coagulation, and may influence bone, neurological and vascular health. Data on the vitamin K content of Australian foods are limited, preventing estimation of vitamin K intakes in the Australian population. We measured phylloquinone (PK) and menaquinone (MK) -4 to -10 in cheese, yoghurt and meat products (48 composite samples from 288 primary samples) by liquid chromatography with electrospray ionisation-tandem mass spectrometry. At least one K vitamer was found in every sample. The greatest mean (± standard deviation for foods sampled in multiple cities) concentrations of PK (4.9 µg/100 g), MK-4 (58 ± 9 µg/100 g) and MK-9 (8 ± 2 µg/100 g) were found in lamb liver, chicken leg meat and Cheddar cheese, respectively. Cheddar cheese (1.1 ± 0.3 µg/100 g) and cream cheese (1.0 µg/100 g) contained MK-5. MK-8 was found in Cheddar cheese only (4 ± 2 µg/100 g). As the K vitamer profile and concentrations appear to vary considerably by geographical location, Australia needs a vitamin K food composition dataset that is representative of foods consumed in Australia.

Vitamin D Fortification of Milk Would Increase Vitamin D Intakes in the Australian Population, but a More Comprehensive Strategy Is Required.

Low vitamin D status (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentration < 50 nmol/L) is prevalent in Australia, ranging between 15% and 32% in the adolescent and adult populations. Vitamin D intakes are also low across the population and were recently estimated at 1.8−3.2 µg/day on average, assuming equal bioactivity of the D vitamers. In combination, these findings strongly suggest that data-driven nutrition policy is needed to increase vitamin D intake and improve status in the Australian population. Food fortification is a potential strategy. We used up-to-date vitamin D food composition data for vitamin D3, 25(OH)D3, vitamin D2, and 25(OH)D2, and nationally representative food and supplement consumption data from the 2011−2013 Australian Health Survey, to model a fortification scenario of 0.8 µg/100 mL vitamin D for fluid dairy milks and alternatives. Under the modelled fortification scenario, the mean vitamin D intake increased by ~2 µg/day from baseline to 4.9 µg/day from food only (7.2 µg/day including supplements). Almost all individual intakes remained substantially below 10 µg/day, which is the Estimated Average Requirement in North America. In conclusion, this modelling showed that fortification of fluid milks/alternatives with vitamin D at the current permitted level would produce a meaningful increase in vitamin D intake, which could be of potential benefit to those with a low vitamin D status. However, this initial step would be insufficient to ensure that most of the population achieves the North American EAR for vitamin D intake. This approach could be included as an effective component of a more comprehensive strategy that includes vitamin D fortification of a range of foods.

Vitamin D composition of Australian game products.

The vitamin D content of many Australian game products is unknown. These foods are potential sources of vitamin D for remote-dwelling Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, of whom 39% are vitamin D deficient (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25(OH)D3) concentrations < 50 nmol/L). Vitamin D3, 25(OH)D3, vitamin D2 and 25(OH)D2 were measured by liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-QQQ) in raw meat (camel, crocodile, emu, kangaroo), emu eggs and emu oil. Vitamin D3 (range, 0.5-14.5 µg/100 g) was found in all products except camel and kangaroo. All samples except kangaroo contained 25(OH)D3; some camel samples contained relatively high concentrations (range, 0.4-5.2 µg/100 g). Vitamin D2 was found in emu products and some kangaroo samples. We detected trace amounts of 25(OH)D2 in some camel and kangaroo samples. This study provides valuable insight into foods with a paucity of data on vitamin D content, showing that some are potentially useful sources of vitamin D.

Vitamin D composition of Australian foods.

Australia needs accurate vitamin D food composition data to support public health initiatives. Previously, limitations in analytical methodology have precluded development of a comprehensive database. We used liquid chromatography with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-QQQ) to analyse 149 composite samples representing 98 foods (primary samples n = 896) in duplicate for vitamin D3, 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25(OH)D3), vitamin D2, 25(OH)D2. The greatest concentrations of vitamin D3 were found in canned salmon and a malted chocolate drink powder (fortified); chicken eggs and chicken leg meat contained the most 25(OH)D3. Margarine (fortified) and chocolate contained the greatest concentrations of vitamin D2, with smaller amounts found in various meat products. 25(OH)D2 was detected in various foods, including meats, and was quantitated in lamb liver. These data advance knowledge of dietary vitamin D in Australia and highlight the importance of analysis of these four forms of vitamin D to accurately represent the vitamin D content of food.

Temporal Change in Iron Content of Vegetables and Legumes in Australia: A Scoping Review.

Studies in UK and US have reported a temporal decline in the iron content of plant-based foods. Limited research on this topic has been conducted in Australia. The aim of this scoping review was to provide a comprehensive evaluation on the temporal change in iron content of Australian vegetables and legumes from 1900 onward. A systematic search of electronic databases, websites, backward reference searching, and Australian food composition tables was conducted. A total of 34 articles and six versions of Australian food composition databases published between 1930s to 2021, were included in this review. Overall, iron content of vegetables and legumes were assessed at limited time points and geographical origin, cultivars, sampling and analytical techniques varied across studies. The majority of vegetables had similar iron content between two or more timepoints but decreases of 30-50% were noted for sweet corn, red-skinned potatoes, cauliflower and green beans while increases of 150-300% were seen for Hass avocadoes, mushrooms and silverbeet. More pronounced reductions in iron content were observed for legumes, with higher and more variable values reported pre-2000 compared to recent years. Due to limited data and variations in sampling and analytical techniques, no definitive conclusions could be established. As plant-based diets are becoming more popular, consistent monitoring of the nutrient composition of staple plant-based foods is strongly recommended.

Vitamin D3 and 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 Content of Retail White Fish and Eggs in Australia.

Dietary vitamin D may compensate for inadequate sun exposure; however, there have been few investigations into the vitamin D content of Australian foods. We measured vitamin D3 and 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25(OH)D3) in four species of white fish (barramundi, basa, hoki and king dory), and chicken eggs (cage and free-range), purchased from five Australian cities. Samples included local, imported and wild-caught fish, and eggs of varying size from producers with a range of hen stocking densities. Raw and cooked samples were analysed using high performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array. Limits of reporting were 0.2 and 0.1 µg/100 g for vitamin D3 and 25(OH)D3, respectively. The vitamin D3 content of cooked white fish ranged from <0.1 to 2.3 µg/100 g, and the 25(OH)D3 content ranged from 0.3 to 0.7 µg/100 g. The vitamin D3 content of cooked cage eggs ranged from 0.4 to 0.8 µg/100 g, and the 25(OH)D3 content ranged from 0.4 to 1.2 µg/100 g. The vitamin D3 content of cooked free-range eggs ranged from 0.3 to 2.2 µg/100 g, and the 25(OH)D3 content ranged from 0.5 to 0.8 µg/100 g. If, as has been suggested, 25(OH)D3 has five times greater bioactivity than vitamin D3, one cooked serve (100 g) of white fish, and one cooked serve of cage or free-range eggs (120 g) may provide 50% or 100%, respectively, of the current guidelines for the adequate intake of vitamin D (5 µg) for Australians aged 1-50 years.

Chronic fructose substitution for glucose or sucrose in food or beverages has little effect on fasting blood glucose, insulin, or triglycerides: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Background: Conflicting evidence exists on the role of long-term fructose consumption on health. No systematic review has addressed the effect of isoenergetic fructose replacement of other sugars and its effect on glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), fasting blood glucose, insulin, and triglycerides.Objective: The objective of this study was to review the evidence for a reduction in fasting glycemic and insulinemic markers after chronic, isoenergetic replacement of glucose or sucrose in foods or beverages by fructose. The target populations were persons without diabetes, those with impaired glucose tolerance, and those with type 2 diabetes.Design: We searched the Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform Search Portal, and clinicaltrials.gov The date of the last search was 26 April 2016. We included randomized controlled trials of isoenergetic replacement of glucose, sucrose, or both by fructose in adults or children with or without diabetes of ≥2 wk duration that measured fasting blood glucose. The main outcomes analyzed were fasting blood glucose and insulin as well as fasting triglycerides, blood lipoproteins, HbA1c, and body weight.Results: We included 14 comparison arms from 11 trials, including 277 patients. The studies varied in length from 2 to 10 wk (mean: 28 d) and included doses of fructose between 40 and 150 g/d (mean: 68 g/d). Fructose substitution in some subgroups resulted in significantly but only slightly lowered fasting blood glucose (-0.14 mmol/L; 95% CI: -0.24, -0.036 mmol/L), HbA1c [-10 g/L (95% CI: -12.90, -7.10 g/L; impaired glucose tolerance) and -6 g/L (95% CI: -8.47, -3.53 g/L; normoglycemia)], triglycerides (-0.08 mmol/L; 95% CI: -0.14, -0.02 mmol/L), and body weight (-1.40 kg; 95% CI: -2.07, -0.74 kg). There was no effect on fasting blood insulin or blood lipids.Conclusions: The evidence suggests that the substitution of fructose for glucose or sucrose in food or beverages may be of benefit to individuals, particularly those with impaired glucose tolerance or type 2 diabetes. However, additional high-quality studies in these populations are required.

Fructose replacement of glucose or sucrose in food or beverages lowers postprandial glucose and insulin without raising triglycerides: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Background: Conflicting evidence exists on the effects of fructose consumption in people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. No systematic review has addressed the effect of isoenergetic fructose replacement of glucose or sucrose on peak postprandial glucose, insulin, and triglyceride concentrations.Objective: The objective of this study was to review the evidence for postprandial glycemic and insulinemic responses after isoenergetic replacement of either glucose or sucrose in foods or beverages with fructose.Design: We searched the Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform Search Portal, and clinicaltrials.gov The date of the last search was 26 April 2016. We included randomized controlled trials measuring peak postprandial glycemia after isoenergetic replacement of glucose, sucrose, or both with fructose in healthy adults or children with or without diabetes. The main outcomes analyzed were peak postprandial blood glucose, insulin, and triglyceride concentrations.Results: Replacement of either glucose or sucrose by fructose resulted in significantly lowered peak postprandial blood glucose, particularly in people with prediabetes and type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Similar results were obtained for insulin. Peak postprandial blood triglyceride concentrations did not significantly increase.Conclusions: Strong evidence exists that substituting fructose for glucose or sucrose in food or beverages lowers peak postprandial blood glucose and insulin concentrations. Isoenergetic replacement does not result in a substantial increase in blood triglyceride concentrations.

Changes in Meat/Poultry/Fish Consumption in Australia: From 1995 to 2011-2012.

The purpose of the study was to examine temporal changes in meat/poultry/fish consumption patterns between 1995 and 2011-2012 in the Australian population. Meat/poultry/fish consumption from all food sources, including recipes, was analysed by gender, age group, and socio-economic status using 24-h recall data from the 1995 National Nutrition Survey (n = 13,858) and the 2011-2012 National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (n = 12,153). The overall proportion of people consuming meat/poultry/fish remained stable (91.7% versus 91.3%, p = 0.55), but a shift in the type of meat consumed was observed. Red meat, including beef and lamb, was consumed by fewer people over the time period (from 56% to 49%), whereas poultry consumption increased (from 29% to 38%). Amounts of all meat/poultry/fish consumed were reportedly higher in 2011-2012 compared with 1995. This resulted in similar (red meat, and processed meat) or slightly higher (poultry, and fish) per-capita intakes in 2011-2012. The magnitude of change of consumption varied between children and adults, and by gender. Monitoring trends in consumption is particularly relevant to policy makers, researchers and other health professionals for the formulation of dietary recommendations and estimation of potential health outcomes.

Australian seafood compositional profiles: A pilot study. Vitamin D and mercury content.

Given the scarcity of comprehensive nutritional data for Australia's >400 commercially produced seafood species a pilot study was undertaken to collect and analyse 22 species of wild and aquaculture seafood in order to develop a model for future comprehensive surveys. The species analysed were: Atlantic salmon, Australian sardine, prawn (six species), barramundi, abalone (three species), blue sprat, burrowing blackfish, gummy shark, oyster (four species), ocean trout and yellowtail kingfish. The analyses undertaken in this pilot study were: moisture, protein, total fat, cholesterol, fatty acids, vitamin C, vitamins A and D, and 21 mineral elements (including total mercury and methyl mercury). The data reported here are for vitamin D and mercury only. Comprehensive data have already been published elsewhere. Issues identified that should be addressed prior to undertaking a more extensive and representative study of the remaining major edible commercial Australian seafood species include: choice of samples and nutrients for analysis, facilities for sample handling and storage, data management and scrutiny, and laboratory quality control.

Nutrient Composition of Retail Samples of Australian Beef Sausages.

Some nutrient data for beef sausages in Australia's food composition table, NUTTAB 2010, is over 25 years old and may no longer reflect the composition of this popular food. To update this, 41 retail samples of fresh beef sausages were purchased in Melbourne, Australia, in May 2015. Each purchase was analysed, uncooked, for moisture, protein and fat. Sausages were then grouped by fat content into one of three composites and analysed for a wide range of nutrients, before and after dry heat cooking, the most popular sausage cooking method. Fat content in raw sausages averaged 14.9 g/100 g, 30% lower than NUTTAB values, varying from 7.3 to 22.6 g/100 g. This indicates it is possible to formulate leaner sausages that meet consumer expectations and may qualify for certain nutrition labelling statements. Under current Australian labelling requirements, two low fat sausages contain sufficient protein, B12, niacin, phosphorus and zinc to qualify as a good source of these nutrients and sufficient iron, selenium and vitamin A to qualify as a source of these. Sodium levels are higher than fresh beef, ranging from 680 to 840 mg/100 g. These data will be used to update NUTTAB and support product labelling and consumer education.

New data for vitamin D in Australian foods of animal origin: impact on estimates of national adult vitamin D intakes in 1995 and 2011-13.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the potential dietary supply of vitamin D to Australian adults by application of new data for Australian primary foods of animal origin. METHODS: New published analytical data on the vitamin D contents of Australian primary foods from animal products were obtained and assessed for reliability. Using food consumption data from Australian population dietary surveys for 1995 and 2011-2013, estimates were made of the likely average daily intakes of vitamin D equivalents from these sources by Australian adults. RESULTS: Meats, chicken, fish, eggs and dairy produce may alone have contributed about 4.2 µg vitamin D equivalents per day to average Australian diets of adults >18 years in 1995 and 4.3 µg in 2011-2013. CONCLUSIONS: Dietary vitamin D intake in Australia is likely to be higher than previously estimated because new data from improved analytical methods reveal the contributions to vitamin D supply from foods of animal origin. Absence of reliable vitamin D data for milk and milk products, and the gaps in vitamin D data for many commonly consumed seafood, poultry, eggs and processed animal products greatly limit estimation of dietary vitamin D intakes by Australians.

Fat content and composition in retail samples of Australian beef mince.

Nutrient composition data, representative of the retail supply, is required to support labelling and dietetic practice. Because beef mince represents approximately 30% of all beef dishes prepared in Australian households, a national survey of the different types of mince available for purchase in representative retail outlets was conducted. Sixty-one samples of beef mince from 24 retail outlets in New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and Western Australia were collected in 2010 and analysed for moisture, protein, total fat and fatty acid profile. A variety of 18 different descriptors were used at point of sale with "Premium" (n = 15) and "Regular" (n = 8) the most commonly used terms. The analysed fat content of "Premium" samples varied from 2.2 g/100 g to 8.0 g/100 g. Forty-eight percent (n = 29) of the samples were categorised as low fat (<5 g/100 g; mean 4.1 g/100 g), 21% as medium fat (5-10 g/100 g; mean 8.9 g/100 g) and 31% as high fat (>10 g/100 g; mean 10.4 g/100 g). There was no significant difference between the types of mince available for purchase in low versus high socio-economic suburbs (Chi-square, p > 0.05). In conclusion, the fat content of the majority of retail beef mince in Australia is <10 g/100 g and a variety of descriptors are used at point of sale, all of which do not necessarily reflect analysed fat content.

Estimates of total dietary folic Acid intake in the Australian population following mandatory folic Acid fortification of bread.

Mandatory folic acid fortification of wheat flour for making bread was implemented in Australia in September 2009, to improve the dietary folate status of women of child-bearing age, and help reduce the incidence of neural tube defects in the population. This paper presents estimates of folic acid intake in the target population and other subgroups of the Australian population following implementation of the mandatory folic acid fortification standard. In June/July 2010 one hundred samples from seven bread categories were purchased from around the country and individually analysed for the amount of folic acid they contained. A modification to the triple enzyme microbiological method was used to measure folic acid in the individual bread samples. The folic acid analytical values together with national food consumption data were used to generate estimates of the population's folic acid intake from fortified foods. Food Standards Australia New Zealand's (FSANZ) custom-built dietary modelling program (DIAMOND) was used for the estimates. The mean amount of folic acid found in white bread was 200 µg/100 g which demonstrated that folic-acid-fortified wheat flour was used to bake the bread. The intake estimates indicated an increase in mean folic acid intake of 159 µg per day for the target group. Other sub-groups of the population also showed increases in estimated mean daily intake of folic acid.

Risk assessment to underpin food regulatory decisions: an example of public health nutritional epidemiology.

The approach used by food regulation agencies to examine the literature and forecast the impact of possible food regulations has many similar features to the approach used in nutritional epidemiological research. We outline the Risk Analysis Framework described by FAO/WHO, in which there is formal progression from identification of the nutrient or food chemical of interest, through to describing its effect on health and then assessing whether there is a risk to the population based on dietary exposure estimates. We then discuss some important considerations for the dietary modeling component of the Framework, including several methodological issues that also exist in research nutritional epidemiology. Finally, we give several case studies that illustrate how the different methodological components are used together to inform decisions about how to manage the regulatory problem.