ETD001: A novel inhaled ENaC blocker with an extended duration of action in vivo.

BACKGROUND: Inhibiting ENaC in the airways of people with cystic fibrosis (pwCF) is hypothesized to enhance mucociliary clearance (MCC) and provide clinical benefit. Historically, inhaled ENaC blockers have failed to show benefit in pwCF challenging this hypothesis. It is however unknown whether the clinical doses were sufficient to provide the required long duration of action in the lungs and questions whether a novel candidate could offer advantages where others have failed? METHODS: Dose-responses with the failed ENaC blockers (VX-371, BI 1265162, AZD5634, QBW276) together with ETD001 (a novel long acting inhaled ENaC blocker) were established in a sheep model of MCC and were used to predict clinically relevant doses that would provide a long-lasting enhancement of MCC in pwCF. In each case, dose predictions were compared with the selected clinical dose. RESULTS: Each of the failed candidates enhanced MCC in the sheep model. Translating these dose-response data to human equivalent doses, predicted that substantially larger doses of each candidate, than were evaluated in clinical studies, would likely have been required to achieve a prolonged enhancement of MCC in pwCF. In contrast, ETD001 displayed a long duration of action (≥16 h) at a dose level that was well tolerated in Phase 1 clinical studies. CONCLUSIONS: These data support that the ENaC blocker hypothesis is yet to be appropriately tested in pwCF. ETD001 has a profile that enables dosing at a level sufficient to provide a long duration of action in a Phase 2 clinical study in pwCF scheduled for 2024.

Niclosamide does not modulate airway epithelial function through blocking of the calcium activated chloride channel, TMEM16A.

Niclosamide and benzbromarone have been described as inhibitors of the calcium activated chloride channel, TMEM16A, and on this basis have been considered and tested as clinical candidates for the treatment of airway diseases. However, both compounds have previously demonstrated activity on a range of additional biological targets and it is unclear from the literature to what extent any activity on TMEM16A may contribute to efficacy in these models of airway disease. The aim of the present study was therefore to examine the pharmacology and selectivity of these clinical candidates together with a structurally unrelated TMEM16A blocker, Ani9, in a range of functional assays to better appreciate the putative role of TMEM16A in the regulation of both epithelial ion transport and the development of an airway epithelial mucus secretory phenoptype. Benzbromarone and Ani9 both attenuated recombinant TMEM16A activity in patch clamp studies, whereas in contrast, niclosamide induced a paradoxical potentiation of the TMEM16A-mediated current. Niclosamide and benzbromarone were also demonstrated to attenuate receptor-dependent increases in intracellular Ca2+ levels ([Ca2+]i) which likely contributed to their concomitant attenuation of the Ca2+-stimulated short-circuit current responses of FRT-TMEM16A and primary human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells. In contrast, Ani9 attenuated the Ca2+-stimulated short-circuit current responses of both cell systems without influencing [Ca2+]i which supports a true channel blocking mechanism for this compound. Additional studies using HBE cells revealed effects of both niclosamide and benzbromarone on global ion transport processes (absorptive and secretory) as well as signs of toxicity (elevated LDH levels, loss of transepithelial resistance) that were not shared by Ani9. Ani9 also failed to influence the IL-13 induced differentiation of HBE towards a goblet cell rich, mucus hypersecreting epithelium, whereas niclosamide and benzbromarone attenuated numbers of both goblet and multiciliated cells, that would be consistent with cellular toxicity. Together these data challenge the description of niclosamide as a TMEM16A blocker and illustrate a range of off-target effects of both niclosamide and benzbromarone which may contribute to the reported activity in models of airway function.

Discovery of Icenticaftor (QBW251), a Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator Potentiator with Clinical Efficacy in Cystic Fibrosis and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.

Mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) ion channel are established as the primary causative factor in the devastating lung disease cystic fibrosis (CF). More recently, cigarette smoke exposure has been shown to be associated with dysfunctional airway epithelial ion transport, suggesting a role for CFTR in the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Here, the identification and characterization of a high throughput screening hit 6 as a potentiator of mutant human F508del and wild-type CFTR channels is reported. The design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of compounds 7-33 to establish structure-activity relationships of the scaffold are described, leading to the identification of clinical development compound icenticaftor (QBW251) 33, which has subsequently progressed to deliver two positive clinical proofs of concept in patients with CF and COPD and is now being further developed as a novel therapeutic approach for COPD patients.

Safety and efficacy of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator potentiator icenticaftor (QBW251).

BACKGROUND: This is the first-in-human study of icenticaftor, an oral potentiator of the cystic fibrosis (CF) transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) channel. Restoration of CFTR activity has shown significant clinical benefits, but more studies are needed to address all CFTR mutations. METHODS: Safety, pharmacodynamics/pharmacokinetics of icenticaftor were evaluated in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in healthy volunteers. Efficacy was assessed in adult CF patients with ≥1 pre-specified CFTR Class III or IV mutation (150 and 450 mg bid), or homozygous for F508del mutation (450 mg bid). Primary efficacy endpoint was change from baseline in lung clearance index (LCI2.5). Secondary endpoints included %predicted FEV1 and sweat chloride level. RESULTS: Class IV mutations were present in 22 patients, Class III in 2 (both S549N), and 25 were homozygous for F508del. Icenticaftor was well-tolerated in healthy and CF subjects with no unexpected events or discontinuations in the CF groups. The most frequent study-drug related adverse events in CF patients were nausea (12.2%), headache (10.2%), and fatigue (6.1%). Icenticaftor 450 mg bid for 14 days showed significant improvements in all endpoints versus placebo in patients with Class III and IV mutations; mean %predicted FEV1 increased by 6.46%, LCI2.5 decreased by 1.13 points and sweat chloride decreased by 8.36 mmol/L. No significant efficacy was observed in patients homozygous for a single F508del. CONCLUSIONS: Icenticaftor was safe and well-tolerated in healthy volunteers and CF patients, and demonstrated clinically meaningful changes in lung function and sweat chloride level in CF patients with Class III and IV CFTR mutations. ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02190604.

Efficacy and Safety of the CFTR Potentiator Icenticaftor (QBW251) in COPD: Results from a Phase 2 Randomized Trial.

Rationale: Excess mucus plays a key role in COPD pathogenesis. Cigarette smoke-induced cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) dysfunction may contribute to disease pathogenesis by depleting airway surface liquid and reducing mucociliary transport; these defects can be corrected in vitro by potentiating CFTR. Objective: To assess the efficacy of the CFTR potentiator icenticaftor in improving airflow obstruction in COPD patients with symptoms of chronic bronchitis. Methods: In this double-blind, placebo-controlled study, COPD patients were randomized (2:1) to either icenticaftor 300 mg or placebo b.i.d. This non-confirmatory proof of concept study was powered for lung clearance index (LCI) and pre-bronchodilator FEV1, with an estimated sample size of 90 patients. The primary endpoint was change from baseline in LCI for icenticaftor versus placebo at Day 29; key secondary endpoints included change from baseline in pre- and post-bronchodilator FEV1 on Day 29. Key exploratory endpoints included change from baseline in sweat chloride, plasma fibrinogen levels, and sputum colonization. Results: Ninety-two patients were randomized (icenticaftor, n=64; placebo, n=28). At Day 29, icenticaftor showed no improvement in change in LCI (treatment difference: 0.28 [19% probability of being better than placebo]), an improvement in pre-bronchodilator FEV1 (mean: 50 mL [84% probability]) and an improvement in post-bronchodilator FEV1 (mean: 63 mL [91% probability]) over placebo. Improvements in sweat chloride, fibrinogen and sputum bacterial colonization were also observed. Icenticaftor was safe and well tolerated. Conclusion: The CFTR potentiator icenticaftor increased FEV1 versus placebo after 28 days and was associated with improvements in systemic inflammation and sputum bacterial colonization in COPD patients; no improvements in LCI with icenticaftor were observed.

Potentiating TMEM16A does not stimulate airway mucus secretion or bronchial and pulmonary arterial smooth muscle contraction.

The calcium-activated chloride channel (CaCC) TMEM16A enables chloride secretion across several transporting epithelia, including in the airways. Additional roles for TMEM16A have been proposed, which include regulating mucus production and secretion and stimulating smooth muscle contraction. The aim of the present study was to test whether the pharmacological regulation of TMEM16A channel function, could affect any of these proposed biological roles in the airways. In vitro, neither a potent and selective TMEM16A potentiator (ETX001) nor the potent TMEM16A inhibitor (Ani9) influenced either baseline mucin release or goblet cell numbers in well-differentiated primary human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells. In vivo, a TMEM16A potentiator was without effect on goblet cell emptying in an IL-13 stimulated goblet cell metaplasia model. Using freshly isolated human bronchi and pulmonary arteries, neither ETX001 or Ani9 had any effect on the contractile or relaxant responses of the tissues. In vivo, ETX001 also failed to influence either lung or cardiovascular function when delivered directly into the airways of telemetered rats. Together, these studies do not support a role for TMEM16A in the regulation of goblet cell numbers or baseline mucin release, or on the regulation of airway or pulmonary artery smooth muscle contraction.

TMEM16A: An Alternative Approach to Restoring Airway Anion Secretion in Cystic Fibrosis?

The concept that increasing airway hydration leads to improvements in mucus clearance and lung function in cystic fibrosis has been clinically validated with osmotic agents such as hypertonic saline and more convincingly with cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) repair therapies. Although rapidly becoming the standard of care in cystic fibrosis (CF), current CFTR modulators do not treat all patients nor do they restore the rate of decline in lung function to normal levels. As such, novel approaches are still required to ensure all with CF have effective therapies. Although CFTR plays a fundamental role in the regulation of fluid secretion across the airway mucosa, there are other ion channels and transporters that represent viable targets for future therapeutics. In this review article we will summarise the current progress with CFTR-independent approaches to restoring mucosal hydration, including epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) blockade and modulators of SLC26A9. A particular emphasis is given to modulation of the airway epithelial calcium-activated chloride channel (CaCC), TMEM16A, as there is controversy regarding whether it should be positively or negatively modulated. This is discussed in light of a recent report describing for the first time bona fide TMEM16A potentiators and their positive effects upon epithelial fluid secretion and mucus clearance.

TMEM16A Potentiation: A Novel Therapeutic Approach for the Treatment of Cystic Fibrosis.

Rationale: Enhancing non-CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator)-mediated anion secretion is an attractive therapeutic approach for the treatment of cystic fibrosis (CF) and other mucoobstructive diseases.Objectives: To determine the effects of TMEM16A potentiation on epithelial fluid secretion and mucociliary clearance.Methods: The effects of a novel low-molecular-weight TMEM16A potentiator (ETX001) were evaluated in human cell and animal models of airway epithelial function and mucus transport.Measurements and Main Results: Potentiating the activity of TMEM16A with ETX001 increased the Ca2+-activated Cl- channel activity and anion secretion in human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells from patients with CF without impacting calcium signaling. ETX001 rapidly increased fluid secretion and airway surface liquid height in CF-HBE cells under both static conditions and conditions designed to mimic the shear stress associated with tidal breathing. In ovine models of mucus clearance (tracheal mucus velocity and mucociliary clearance), inhaled ETX001 was able to accelerate clearance both when CFTR function was reduced by administration of a pharmacological blocker and when CFTR was fully functional.Conclusions: Enhancing the activity of TMEM16A increases epithelial fluid secretion and enhances mucus clearance independent of CFTR function. TMEM16A potentiation is a novel approach for the treatment of patients with CF and non-CF mucoobstructive diseases.

Emerging Concepts and Therapies for Mucoobstructive Lung Disease.

A spectrum of intrapulmonary airway diseases, for example, cigarette smoke-induced bronchitis, cystic fibrosis, primary ciliary dyskinesia, and non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis, can be categorized as "mucoobstructive" airway diseases. A common theme for these diseases appears to be the failure to properly regulate mucus concentration, producing mucus hyperconcentration that slows mucus transport and, importantly, generates plaque/plug adhesion to airway surfaces. These mucus plaques/plugs generate long diffusion distances for oxygen, producing hypoxic niches within adherent airway mucus and subjacent epithelia. Data suggest that concentrated mucus plaques/plugs are proinflammatory, in part mediated by release of IL-1α from hypoxic cells. The infectious component of mucoobstructive diseases may be initiated by anaerobic bacteria that proliferate within the nutrient-rich hypoxic mucus environment. Anaerobes ultimately may condition mucus to provide the environment for a succession to classic airway pathogens, including Staphylococcus aureus, Haemophilus influenzae, and ultimately Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Novel therapies to treat mucoobstructive diseases focus on restoring mucus concentration. Strategies to rehydrate mucus range from the inhalation of osmotically active solutes, designed to draw water into airway surfaces, to strategies designed to manipulate the relative rates of sodium absorption versus chloride secretion to endogenously restore epithelial hydration. Similarly, strategies designed to reduce the mucin burden in the airways, either by reducing mucin production/secretion or by clearing accumulated mucus (e.g., reducing agents), are under development. Thus, the new insights into a unifying process, that is, mucus hyperconcentration, that drives a significant component of the pathogenesis of mucoobstructive diseases promise multiple new therapeutic strategies to aid patients with this syndrome.

Investigation of the Role of Protein Kinase D in Human Rhinovirus Replication.

Picornavirus replication is known to cause extensive remodeling of Golgi and endoplasmic reticulum membranes, and a number of the host proteins involved in the viral replication complex have been identified, including oxysterol binding protein (OSBP) and phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase III beta (PI4KB). Since both OSBP and PI4KB are substrates for protein kinase D (PKD) and PKD is known to be involved in the control of Golgi membrane vesicular and lipid transport, we hypothesized that PKD played a role in viral replication. We present multiple lines of evidence in support of this hypothesis. First, infection of HeLa cells with human rhinovirus (HRV) induced the phosphorylation of PKD. Second, PKD inhibitors reduced HRV genome replication, protein expression, and titers in a concentration-dependent fashion and also blocked the replication of poliovirus (PV) and foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in a variety of cells. Third, HRV replication was significantly reduced in HeLa cells overexpressing wild-type and mutant forms of PKD1. Fourth, HRV genome replication was reduced in HAP1 cells in which the PKD1 gene was knocked out by clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9. Although we have not identified the molecular mechanism through which PKD regulates viral replication, our data suggest that this is not due to enhanced interferon signaling or an inhibition of clathrin-mediated endocytosis, and PKD inhibitors do not need to be present during viral uptake. Our data show for the first time that targeting PKD with small molecules can inhibit the replication of HRV, PV, and FMDV, and therefore, PKD may represent a novel antiviral target for drug discovery.IMPORTANCE Picornaviruses remain an important family of human and animal pathogens for which we have a very limited arsenal of antiviral agents. HRV is the causative agent of the common cold, which in itself is a relatively trivial infection; however, in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients, this virus is a major cause of exacerbations resulting in an increased use of medication, worsening symptoms, and, frequently, hospital admission. Thus, HRV represents a substantial health care and economic burden for which there are no approved therapies. We sought to identify a novel host target as a potential anti-HRV therapy. HRV infection induces the phosphorylation of PKD, and inhibitors of this kinase effectively block HRV replication at an early stage of the viral life cycle. Moreover, PKD inhibitors also block PV and FMDV replication. This is the first description that PKD may represent a target for antiviral drug discovery.

Notch2 is required for inflammatory cytokine-driven goblet cell metaplasia in the lung.

The balance and distribution of epithelial cell types is required to maintain tissue homeostasis. A hallmark of airway diseases is epithelial remodeling, leading to increased goblet cell numbers and an overproduction of mucus. In the conducting airway, basal cells act as progenitors for both secretory and ciliated cells. To identify mechanisms regulating basal cell fate, we developed a screenable 3D culture system of airway epithelial morphogenesis. We performed a high-throughput screen using a collection of secreted proteins and identified inflammatory cytokines that specifically biased basal cell differentiation toward a goblet cell fate, culminating in enhanced mucus production. We also demonstrate a specific requirement for Notch2 in cytokine-induced goblet cell metaplasia in vitro and in vivo. We conclude that inhibition of Notch2 prevents goblet cell metaplasia induced by a broad range of stimuli and propose Notch2 neutralization as a therapeutic strategy for preventing goblet cell metaplasia in airway diseases.

Phosphoinositide 3-kinase alpha-dependent regulation of branching morphogenesis in murine embryonic lung: evidence for a role in determining morphogenic properties of FGF7.

Branching morphogenesis is a critical step in the development of many epithelial organs. The phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) pathway has been identified as a central component of this process but the precise role has not been fully established. Herein we sought to determine the role of PI3K in murine lung branching using a series of pharmacological inhibitors directed at this pathway. The pan-class I PI3K inhibitor ZSTK474 greatly enhanced the branching potential of whole murine lung explants as measured by an increase in the number of terminal branches compared with controls over 48 hours. This enhancement of branching was also observed following inhibition of the downstream signalling components of PI3K, Akt and mTOR. Isoform selective inhibitors of PI3K identified that the alpha isoform of PI3K is a key driver in branching morphogenesis. To determine if the effect of PI3K inhibition on branching was specific to the lung epithelium or secondary to an effect on the mesenchyme we assessed the impact of PI3K inhibition in cultures of mesenchyme-free lung epithelium. Isolated lung epithelium cultured with FGF7 formed large cyst-like structures, whereas co-culture with FGF7 and ZSTK474 induced the formation of defined branches with an intact lumen. Together these data suggest a novel role for PI3K in the branching program of the murine embryonic lung contradictory to that reported in other branching organs. Our observations also point towards PI3K acting as a morphogenic switch for FGF7 signalling.

Respiratory syncytial virus can infect basal cells and alter human airway epithelial differentiation.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, causing severe respiratory illness in infants and immune compromised patients. The ciliated cells of the human airway epithelium have been considered to be the exclusive target of RSV, although recent data have suggested that basal cells, the progenitors for the conducting airway epithelium, may also become infected in vivo. Using either mechanical or chemical injury models, we have demonstrated a robust RSV infection of p63+ basal cells in air-liquid interface (ALI) cultures of human bronchial epithelial cells. In addition, proliferating basal cells in 2D culture were also susceptible to RSV infection. We therefore tested the hypothesis that RSV infection of this progenitor cell would influence the differentiation status of the airway epithelium. RSV infection of basal cells on the day of seeding (MOI≤0.0001), resulted in the formation of an epithelium that showed a profound loss of ciliated cells and gain of secretory cells as assessed by acetylated α-tubulin and MUC5AC/MUC5B immunostaining, respectively. The mechanism driving the switch in epithelial phenotype is in part driven by the induced type I and type III interferon response that we demonstrate is triggered early following RSV infection. Neutralization of this response attenuates the RSV-induced loss of ciliated cells. Together, these data show that through infection of proliferating airway basal cells, RSV has the potential to influence the cellular composition of the airway epithelium. The resulting phenotype might be expected to contribute towards both the severity of acute infection, as well as to the longer-term consequences of viral exacerbations in patients with pre-existing respiratory diseases.

Reduced sodium transport with nasal administration of the prostasin inhibitor camostat in subjects with cystic fibrosis.

BACKGROUND: Prostasin, a trypsin-like serine protease, is a channel-activating protease and major regulator of epithelial sodium channel-mediated sodium absorption. Its direct inhibition by camostat represents a potential approach to inhibiting sodium transport in cystic fibrosis (CF). METHODS: To determine whether a topical formulation of camostat represents an efficacious and tolerable approach to reducing Na+ transport in the CF airway, we conducted a two-part randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover, ascending single-dose study to evaluate the pharmacodynamics, safety, and pharmacokinetics of camostat administered through a nasal spray pump in subjects with CF. Nasal potential difference (PD) was measured before and after treatment, and safety and pharmacokinetics were assessed by a standardized approach. RESULTS: In part 1, nine subjects were enrolled, and six completed crossover dosing at the maximally tolerated dose. The change in maximal (most polarizing) basal PD 2 h following administration of camostat was +13.1 mV (1.6-mg dose group) compared with -8.6 mV following placebo (P<.005). Intrasubject change in Ringer and amiloride-sensitive PDs exhibited similar and consistent responses. Bayesian analysis in an additional six subjects in part 2 estimated a dose of 18 µg/mL to provide 50% of the maximum effect. There was no significant change in chloride transport or total nasal symptom score, nasal examination rating, and laboratory parameters. CONCLUSIONS: This study establishes the proof of concept that a reduction in sodium transport in the human CF airway can be achieved through inhibition of prostasin activity, identifying a potential therapeutic target in the disease. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov; No.: NCT00506792; URL: www.clinicaltrials.gov.

Discovery of a novel chemotype of potent human ENaC blockers using a bioisostere approach. Part 2: α-Branched quaternary amines.

We report the synthesis and biological evaluation of a series of novel α-branched pyrazinoyl quaternary amines for their ability to block ion transport via the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs). Compound 12 g has an IC(50) of 30 nM and is highly efficacious in the Guinea-pig tracheal potential difference (TPD) model of ENaC blockade with an ED(50) of 1 µg kg(-1) at 1h. In addition the SAR results demonstrate for the first time the chiral nature of the binding site of human ENaC. As such, pyrazinoyl quaternary amines represent a promising new class of ENaC blockers for the treatment of cystic fibrosis that are structurally distinct from the pyrazinoyl guanidine chemotype found in prototypical ENaC blockers such as amiloride.

Discovery of a novel chemotype of potent human ENaC blockers using a bioisostere approach. Part 1: quaternary amines.

We report the identification of a novel series of human epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) blockers that are structurally distinct from the pyrazinoyl guanidine chemotype found in prototypical ENaC blockers such as amiloride. Following a rational design hypothesis a series of quaternary amines were prepared and evaluated for their ability to block ion transport via ENaC in human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs). Compound 11 has an IC(50) of 200nM and is efficacious in the Guinea-pig tracheal potential difference (TPD) model of ENaC blockade with an ED(50) of 44µgkg(-1) at 1h. As such, pyrazinoyl quaternary amines represent the first examples of a promising new class of human ENaC blockers.

Regulation of airway mucosal hydration.

Ion channels control the hydration status of the airway epithelium through apical anion secretion and cation absorption, which is accompanied by osmotically obligated water. The key channels in this process are the cystic fibrosis (CF) transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), which is principally responsible for Cl(-) secretion by airway epithelial cells, and the epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC), which is responsible for the absorption of Na ions. In CF, defective CFTR-mediated Cl(-) secretion and an accompanying upregulation in ENaC-mediated Na absorption results in a reduction in airway surface liquid volume, leading to poorly hydrated mucus and impaired mucociliary clearance. Restoration of normal airway hydration by modulation of ion channel activity represents an important therapeutic strategy for CF. CFTR corrector and potentiator compounds are being developed with the aim of recovering normal Cl(-) secretion. Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channels (CaCCs) are expressed by the respiratory epithelia and are reported to be functionally upregulated in CF and offer a 'surrogate' pathway for Cl(-) secretion. TMEM16A has recently been described as a CaCC in the airway epithelium and, as such, represents an alternative target for restoring Cl(-) secretion in CF. An alternative therapeutic strategy for CF is to inhibit ENaC, thereby blocking excessive Na absorption. This can be achieved by direct blockade of ENaC or inhibition of the channel-activating proteases (CAPs), whose activity regulates ENaC function. This review will describe the regulation of airway mucosal hydration by ion channels and the efforts currently underway to restore normal mucosal hydration in disease patients by modulating the function of these channels.

In vivo assessments of mucus dynamics in the rat lung using a Gd-Cy5.5-bilabeled contrast agent for magnetic resonance and optical imaging.

Dysfunctions in mucociliary clearance are associated with the accelerated loss of lung function in several respiratory diseases. Approaches enabling the in vivo visualization of mucus dynamics in rodents at high resolution and sensitivity would be beneficial for experimental lung research. We describe the synthesis and characterization of two bilabeled amino dextran-based probes binding specifically to mucin. Labeling of secreted mucus and of mucin in goblet cells in the lungs of lipopolysaccharide-challenged rats has been demonstrated in vivo with near-infrared fluorescence and MRI and confirmed by histology. The effects of uridine triphosphate were then studied in lipopolysaccharide-challenged rats by simultaneously administering the imaging probe and the compound. The data suggest that uridine triphosphate increased the mucociliary clearance, but at the same time induced a release of mucin from goblet cells, thus not contributing to the overall reduction of mucus in the lung. The approach outlined here enables one to derive information on mucus clearance, as well as secretion. Such a global view on mucus dynamics may prove invaluable when testing new pharmacological agents aimed at improving mucociliary clearance.

Active site conformational changes of prostasin provide a new mechanism of protease regulation by divalent cations.

Prostasin or human channel-activating protease 1 has been reported to play a critical role in the regulation of extracellular sodium ion transport via its activation of the epithelial cell sodium channel. Here, the structure of the extracellular portion of the membrane associated serine protease has been solved to high resolution in complex with a nonselective d-FFR chloromethyl ketone inhibitor, in an apo form, in a form where the apo crystal has been soaked with the covalent inhibitor camostat and in complex with the protein inhibitor aprotinin. It was also crystallized in the presence of the divalent cation Ca(+2). Comparison of the structures with each other and with other members of the trypsin-like serine protease family reveals unique structural features of prostasin and a large degree of conformational variation within specificity determining loops. Of particular interest is the S1 subsite loop which opens and closes in response to basic residues or divalent ions, directly binding Ca(+2) cations. This induced fit active site provides a new possible mode of regulation of trypsin-like proteases adapted in particular to extracellular regions with variable ionic concentrations such as the outer membrane layer of the epithelial cell.