Implication of S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase in inhibition of TNF-alpha- and IL-1beta-induced expression of inflammatory mediators by AICAR in RPE cells.

PURPOSE: AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) has been suggested to be a novel signaling pathway in regulating inflammation. The role of AMPK in retinal pigment epithelial cell inflammatory response is addressed using AMPK activator 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide riboside (AICAR). METHODS: Protein expression and activation of signaling molecules were detected by immunoblotting. Cytokines were determined by ELISA kits. AMPKalpha expression was knockdown by siRNAs. RESULTS: AICAR inhibited tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha- or interleukin (IL)-1beta-induced production of IL-6, IL-8, and monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1 and of intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 expression in human RPE cells. The inhibitory effect on cytokine production and ICAM-1 expression persisted in the RPE cells in which AMPK was knocked down by AMPK siRNA. Moreover, an adenosine kinase inhibitor 5'-iodotubercidin, which effectively abolished AMPK activation caused by AICAR, did not reverse the anti-inflammatory effect of AICAR. In comparison, anti-inflammatory effects of AICAR were mimicked by adenosine but not inosine, the metabolites of AICAR. Finally, with the exception of TNF-alpha-induced IL-6 production, adenosine dialdehyde, an inhibitor of S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase, was found to block cytokine production and ICAM-1 expression. CONCLUSIONS: Regardless of the ability of AICAR to activate AMPK, the inhibitory effects of AICAR on cytokine production and ICAM-1 expression were not associated with AMPK. The mechanism of AICAR inhibition may be attributed to the interference of adenosylmethionine-dependent methylation.

alpha2 But not alpha1 AMP-activated protein kinase mediates oxidative stress-induced inhibition of retinal pigment epithelium cell phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segments.

Oxidative stress causes retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cell dysfunction and is a major risk factor leading to the development of dry-type age-related macular degeneration. Taking pharmacological and genetic approaches, we address the mechanisms by which sublethal oxidative stress inhibits RPE cell phagocytosis. Sublethal oxidative stress dose-dependently inhibited RPE cell phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segments (POS) and activated AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) as determined by increased Thr172 and Ser79 phosphorylation of AMPKalpha and its substrate acetyl-CoA carboxylase, respectively. Similar to oxidative stress, 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide riboside (AICAR), a pharmacological activator of AMPK, inhibited RPE cell phagocytosis of POS in a dose-dependent manner. Inhibition of RPE cell phagocytosis by AICAR was fully reversed by blockade of AICAR translocation into cells by dipyridamole or inhibition of AICAR conversion to ZMP by adenosine kinase inhibitor 5-iodotubercidin. In agreement, AICAR-induced activation of AMPK was abolished by preincubation with dipyridamole or 5-iodotubercidin. Knock-out experiments further revealed that alpha2 but not alpha1 AMPK was involved in RPE cell phagocytosis and that activation of alpha2 AMPK contributed to the inhibition of RPE cell phagocytosis by oxidative stress. Inhibition of RPE cell phagocytosis by activation of alpha2 AMPK was associated with a dramatic increase in acetyl-CoA carboxylase phosphorylation. In comparison, AMPK had no role in oxidative stress-induced breakdown of RPE barrier function. Taken together, reduction in POS load under oxidative stress might direct RPE cells to a self-protected status. Thus, activating AMPK could have therapeutic potential in treating dry macular degeneration.

Protection of RPE cells from oxidative injury by 15-deoxy-delta12,14-prostaglandin J2 by augmenting GSH and activating MAPK.

PURPOSE: The goal of this study was to identify the mechanisms by which 15-deoxy-Delta(12,14)-prostaglandin J(2) (dPGJ(2)) protects RPE cells from oxidative injury. METHODS: Cell viability was determined by MTT assay. Protein expression and activation of signaling molecules were detected by Western blot. Reduced glutathione (GSH) was determined by a colorimetric assay kit. PPARgamma expression was knockdown by small interfering (si)RNA technique. RESULTS: dPGJ(2) protected ARPE19 cells from oxidative injury, whereas the synthetic PPARgamma agonists AGN195037 and rosiglitazone had no effect. PPARgamma knockdown also did not affect dPGJ(2)'s protective activity. dPGJ(2) upregulated GSH synthesis via induction of glutamylcysteine ligase. GSH depletion sensitized cells to oxidative stress and completely reversed the protective effect of dPGJ(2). dPGJ(2) activated ERK, JNK, and p38; GSH induction by dPGJ(2) depended partially on JNK and p38. In addition, dPGJ(2) significantly extended hydrogen peroxide-induced activation of JNK and p38, but not of Akt. Inhibition of MEK, JNK, and p38 abolished dPGJ(2)'s protection of ARPE19 cells from oxidative injury, whereas inhibiting PI3K/Akt pathway failed to affect dPGJ(2)'s protective effect. Heme oxygenase-1 was strongly induced by dPGJ(2) but was not associated with protection. CONCLUSIONS: Independent of its PPARgamma activity, dPGJ(2) protected cells from oxidative stress by elevating GSH and enhancing MAPK activation. Thus, dPGJ(2) may delay the development of dry-type age-related macular degeneration.

A functional radioreceptor assay of alpha-V-beta-3 (alphavbeta3) inhibitors in plasma: application as an ex vivo pharmacodynamic model.

Development of alphavbeta3-integrin inhibitors has been hampered by a lack of pharmacodynamic endpoints to identify doses that inhibit alphavbeta3 in vivo. To address this need, we developed an alphavbeta3 radioreceptor assay (RRA) that could be performed in 100% plasma. The RRA was based on 125I-echistatin binding to plate-immobilized alphavbeta3. Small molecule alphavbeta3 inhibitors efficiently competed echistatin binding to alphavbeta3 when the assay was carried out in buffer. However, when carried out in 100% plasma, the RRA revealed a 45 to >3000-fold loss in compound potencies. The losses in potency reflected, in part, the high plasma protein binding by the compounds examined. The RRA was adapted as an ex vivo pharmacodynamic model. Echistatin binding was measured in the presence of plasma harvested at timed intervals from rats dosed with select compounds. Using this pharmacodynamic model, compound and dose selection was optimized for further testing in models of corneal angiogenesis. Moderate anti-angiogenic activity was achieved when rats were dosed sufficient to achieve sustained (>50%) plasma inhibition through the trough interval. Thus, the RRA provided a simple technique to rank order compound potency in plasma, and could find general use as an ex vivo pharmacodynamic assay to select compounds and doses for preclinical and clinical proof-of-principle studies.

Time-course of experimental choroidal neovascularization in Dutch-Belted rabbit: clinical and histological evaluation.

In order to study the pathogenesis of choroidal neovascularization (CNV) and explore a suitable animal model for assessing anti-angiogenic agents, rabbit CNV was induced by subretinal injection of a cocktail containing endotoxin and growth-factor, incorporated in Heparin-sepharose beads. The presence and development of CNV lesions was visualized by fluorescein angiography and quantified by image analysis. The time-course of experimental CNV was evaluated clinically and histologically, with some lesions followed up to 3-years. The suitability of this model for drug evaluation was appraised by the systemic administration of dexamethasone. The experimental results suggest two subsets of CNV, primary and secondary, observed in all treated eyes. Primary CNV, defined as neovascularization extending into the subretinal space and associated with injury to Bruch's membrane at the time of injection, was visible in 100% of eyes by 2-weeks and stable by 3-months. Secondary CNV, defined as neovascularization extending into the sub RPE space away from the initial injection related injury, became visible as early as 2-weeks in some of eyes and developed in 100% of eyes by 8-months. Both primary and secondary CNV were maintained and demonstrated leakage throughout the entire observation period. Atrophy of primary retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) cells and hyper-proliferation of secondary RPE cells were observed in tissue sections with CNV lesions. The formation and growth of primary and secondary CNV were significantly inhibited by dexamethasone. This study indicates that a reproducible and quantitative model of rabbit CNV has been established utilizing subretinal administration of endotoxin and growth-factor. Studies of the stages of experimental CNV both clinically and histologically indicated an intimate relationship between CNV, macrophages and RPE. Furthermore, the inhibition observed with dexamethasone points to the possibility of being able to evaluate effective means of pharmacological intervention.