Risk Factors Related to the Development of Full-thickness Pressure Injuries in Hospitalized Pediatric Patients.

BACKGROUND: Current pediatric pressure injury (PI) prevention measures are based on risk factors related to PI development in adults. Children offer a unique concern for PI development because their bodies are still developing, and their skin responds differently to external pressure. OBJECTIVE: To explore risk factors for the development of full-thickness PIs in children aged 21 weeks' gestation to 21 years. METHODS: This retrospective, observational, correlational study included 799 hospitalized children who developed a PI. The pediatric and adult PI risk factors used in the study were identified from the International Pressure Ulcer Prevention and Treatment Guideline. A stepwise multivariate logistic regression model was used. RESULTS: Multivariate analyses revealed that risk factors for predicting a full-thickness PI varied by age. For children aged 38 weeks to 12 months, risk factors included tissue perfusion and oxygenation: generalized edema, conditions of the OR, and nutrition deficits. For children aged 1 to 7 years, fragile skin status was a risk factor. For youth aged 8 to 21 years, the two risk factors were tissue perfusion and oxygenation: decreased oxygenation and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Across the total sample, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, tissue perfusion and oxygenation: decreased oxygenation and malnutrition were risk factors for predicting a full-thickness PI. CONCLUSIONS: Full-thickness PI risk factors differ among the ages of pediatric patients.

Pressure Injuries and Skin Failure.

Pressure injuries are a common chronic wound in the older adult. Care of pressure injuries is an interprofessional effort and involves physicians, nurses, registered dieticians, rehabilitation therapists, and surgical subspecialties. Numerous treatment modalities exist but have varying evidence to substantiate their efficacy. All primary and other care providers, particularly geriatricians, need to be aware of current evidence-based prevention and treatment standards. When healing is not expected, palliative care should be considered to avoid futile procedures and preserve dignity and quality of life.

Clinical Risk Factors of Perioperative Pressure Injury in Older Adult Patients with a Hip Fracture.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the clinical risk factors of perioperative pressure injury (PrI) in older adults with a hip fracture, including preoperative chronic comorbidities and postoperative complications. METHODS: In this retrospective study, the authors queried the PearlDiver Patient Records database between January 2011 and January 2020. Data from 54,194 patients without preexisting PrI were included for analyses. Patients were separated into two groups: (1) one or more perioperative PrI and (2) no PrI. Clinical factors as outcome variables include 21 comorbidities and 10 complications. RESULTS: Univariate analyses were computed to compare the variables between groups, and two logistic regression models were developed to find comorbidity predictors and complication predictors. Of all patients, 1,362 (2.5%) developed one or more perioperative PrI. Patients with perioperative PrIs were more likely to be older men. One-year mortality for patients with perioperative PrI was 2.5 times that of patients without PrI. The regression models showed that predictors of perioperative PrI are malnutrition, hypoalbuminemia, frailty, peripheral vascular disease, dementia, urinary tract infection, perioperative red blood cell transfusion, and atrial fibrillation. CONCLUSIONS: Screening for these comorbidities and complications may assist in determining the risk of PrI in older adults undergoing hip fracture surgery. Determining PrI risk enables the appropriate prevention strategies to be applied perioperatively.

Perioperative Risk Assessment for Skin Injury.

Hospital-acquired pressure injuries create a tremendous cost to health care organizations and negatively affect quality and patient safety. Surgical patients are at an increased risk for skin injury, particularly a pressure injury, because of a lack of sensation and immobility during a procedure. An interprofessional team at our facility identified factors that place surgical patients at risk for skin injury. We developed a risk assessment protocol in March 2021 using the Six Sigma DMAIC (define, measure, analyze, improve, and control) method. After data review and analysis, we identified age of 65 years or older, existence of a skin condition, and procedural duration greater than four hours as significant predictors for postoperative skin injury. Our findings reinforce the benefit of using an appropriate risk assessment protocol that alerts the perioperative team members to at-risk patients.

Current Perspectives on Pressure Injuries in Persons with Dark Skin Tones from the National Pressure Injury Advisory Panel.

BACKGROUND: Pressure injury (PI) development is multifactorial. In patients with dark skin tones, identifying impending PIs by visual skin assessment can be especially challenging. The need for improved skin assessment techniques, especially for persons with dark skin tones, continues to increase. Similarly, greater awareness of the need for inclusivity with regard to representation of diverse skin colors/tones in education materials is apparent. OBJECTIVE: To provide current perspectives from the literature surrounding skin assessment and PI development in patients with dark skin tones. METHODS: The following elements will be discussed through the lens of skin tone: (1) historical perspectives of PI staging from the National Pressure Injury Advisory Panel, (2) epidemiology of PI, (3) anatomy and physiology of the skin, (3) skin tone assessment and measurement, (4) augmented visual assessment modalities, (5) PI prevention, (6) PI healing, (7) social determinants of health, and (8) gaps in clinician education. CONCLUSIONS: This article highlights the gap in our clinical knowledge regarding PIs in patients with dark skin tones. Racial disparities with regard to PI development and healing are especially clear among patients with dark skin tones. Skin tone color assessment must be standardized and quantifiable in clinical education, practice, and research. This work is urgently needed, and support from private and governmental agencies is essential.

Necessary Products for the Prevention and Treatment of Pressure Injuries: Lessons Learned That Translate Beyond the COVID-19 Pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the challenges encountered in obtaining the required support surfaces and products to meet pressure injury (PrI) prevention and treatment needs during COVID-19. METHODS: The authors used SurveyMonkey to gather data on healthcare perceptions and the challenges experienced regarding specific product categories deemed necessary for PrI prevention and treatment in US acute care settings during the pandemic. They created three anonymous surveys for the target populations of supply chain personnel and healthcare workers. The surveys addressed healthcare workers' perceptions, product requests, and the ability to fulfill product requests and meet facility protocols without substitution in the categories of support surfaces and skin and wound care supplies. RESULTS: Respondents answered one of the three surveys for a total sample of 174 respondents. Despite specific instructions, nurses responded to the surveys designed for supply chain personnel. Their responses and comments were interesting and capture their perspectives and insights. Three themes emerged from the responses and general comments: (1) expectations differed between supply chain staff and nurses for what was required for PrI prevention and treatment; (2) inappropriate substitution with or without proper staff education occurred; and (3) preparedness. CONCLUSIONS: It is important to identify experiences and challenges in the acquisition and availability of appropriate equipment and products for PrI prevention and treatment. To foster ideal PrI prevention and treatment outcomes, a proactive approach is required to face daily issues or the next crisis.

Best-practices for preventing skin injury beneath personal protective equipment during the COVID-19 pandemic: A position paper from the National Pressure Injury Advisory Panel.

COVID-19 has infected millions of patients and impacted healthcare workers worldwide. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is a key component of protecting frontline clinicians against infection. The benefits of PPE far outweigh the risks, nonetheless, many clinicians are exhibiting skin injury caused by PPE worn incorrectly. These skin injuries, ranging from lesions to open wounds are concerning because they increase the susceptibility of viral infection and transmission to other individuals. Early into the COVID-19 pandemic (April 2020), the U. S. National Pressure Injury Advisory Panel (NPIAP) developed a series of position statements to improve wear-ability of PPE and protect healthcare professionals and their patients as safe from harm as possible under the circumstances. The NPIAP positions, which were formed by conducting a systematic review of what was known at the time, include: (a) Prepare skin before and after wearing PPE with skin sealants, barrier creams and moisturisers; (b) Frequent PPE offloading to relieve pressure and shear applied to skin; (c) treat visible skin injuries immediately caused by PPE to minimise future infection; (d) non-porous dressings may provide additional skin protection, but lack evidence; (e) health systems should take care to educate clinicians about placement and personal hygiene related to handling PPE. Throughout all of these practices, handwashing remains a top priority to handle PPE. These NPIAP positions provided early guidance to reduce the risk of skin injury caused by PPE based on available research regarding PPE injuries, a cautious application of evidence-based recommendations on prevention of device-related pressure injuries in patients and the expert opinion of the NPIAP Board of Directors. Clinicians who adhere to these recommendations reduce the prospects of skin damage and long-term effects (e.g. scarring). These simple steps to minimise the risk of skin injury and reduce the risk of coronavirus infection from PPE can help.

Does Sacrococcygeal Skeletal Morphology and Morphometry Influence Pressure Injury Formation in Adults?

GENERAL PURPOSE: To present a study that investigated sacrococcygeal skeletal structure as a possible nonmodifiable intrinsic risk factor for pressure injury and identify possible issues caused by its morphology. TARGET AUDIENCE: This continuing education activity is intended for physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, and nurses with an interest in skin and wound care. LEARNING OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES: After participating in this educational activity, the participant will:1. Recognize the background information the authors considered when planning and conducting their study of sacrococcygeal skeletal structure as a possible pressure injury risk factor.2. Identify the characteristics of the two groups of study participants.3. Choose the results of the study clinicians may consider when implementing evidence-based practice.

To determine if sacrococcygeal skeletal morphology and morphometry characteristics were possible pressure injury (PI) intrinsic risk factors; determine the exact location of these PIs; and generate hypotheses and determine methodological considerations required for future larger studies. This case-control pilot study compared 30 patients who had an MRI scan­15 patients had a PI and 15 patients did not. Key sacrococcygeal morphology and morphometry parameters were assessed. On average, patients with PIs had less of a lumbosacral and sacrococcygeal angle and a greater sacral curvature and intercoccygeal angle than did patients without a PI. Patients with PIs had more variable coccyx types. Tissue and bone destruction precluded several measurements in some patients. The most common area of destruction was located distally. Sacrococcygeal measurements differed in patients with PIs, and PIs were predominately located distally. Authors recommend replicating this study on a larger scale because certain key attributes warrant further investigation to determine their influence on sacrococcygeal PIs. Sacrococcygeal morphology and morphometry parameters have not been previously studied as possible intrinsic risk factors for PIs; yet, this is the most common location for their occurrence. Knowledge regarding possible injury mechanisms due to the forces from overlying skeletal structures with respective tissue loading over the sacrococcygeal area has the potential to inform practice; preventive strategies; and equipment, products, and technology developed.

Malnutrition and Pressure Injury Risk in Vulnerable Populations: Application of the 2019 International Clinical Practice Guideline.

ABSTRACT: Nutrition plays a vital role in promoting skin integrity and supporting tissue repair in the presence of chronic wounds such as pressure injuries (PIs). Individuals who are malnourished are at greater risk of polymorbid conditions, adverse clinical outcomes, longer hospital lengths of stay, PI development, and mortality, and incur increased healthcare costs compared with patients who are adequately nourished. In addition, some patient populations tend to be more vulnerable to PI formation, such as neonates, patients with obesity, older adults, and individuals who are critically ill. Accordingly, this article aims to review the latest nutrition care recommendations for the prevention and treatment of PIs, including those recommendations tailored to special populations. A secondary objective is to translate nutrition recommendations into actionable steps for the healthcare professional to implement as part of a patient plan of care.Implementing an evidence-based plan of care built around individualized nutrition interventions is an essential step supporting skin integrity for these populations. The 2019 Prevention and Treatment of Pressure Ulcers/Injuries: Clinical Practice Guideline (CPG) affirms that meeting nutrient requirements is essential for growth, development, maintenance, and repair of body tissues. Many macronutrients and micronutrients work synergistically to heal PIs. Registered dietitian nutritionists play an important role in helping patients identify the most nutrient dense foods, protein supplements, and oral nutrition supplements to meet their unique requirements.

Arginine: What You Need to Know for Pressure Injury Healing.

GENERAL PURPOSE: To provide information about arginine, its metabolism, and its role in acute and chronic wound healing, to assist providers in understanding the recommendations for arginine supplementation. TARGET AUDIENCE: This continuing education activity is intended for physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, and nurses with an interest in skin and wound care. LEARNING OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES: After participating in this educational activity, the participant will:1. Describe the characteristics of arginine.2. Choose the metabolic processes that define arginine's role in wound healing.3. Identify the average daily intake of arginine in an American diet.4. Select the evidence that demonstrates the effectiveness of arginine supplementation for wound healing. ABSTRACT: Nutrition has an important and integral role in wound healing. Arginine, a type of indispensable amino acid, has long been thought to have wound healing properties. The 2019 international guideline by the European Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel, National Pressure Injury Advisory Panel, and Pan Pacific Pressure Injury Alliance recommends use of a high-protein, high-calorie oral nutrition supplement fortified with arginine and other antioxidants to treat adults with stage 2 or greater pressure injury and who are malnourished or at risk of malnutrition to foster healing. This article provides necessary background on this conditionally indispensable amino acid, its metabolism, and its role in acute and chronic wound healing to assist providers in understanding the recommendation for arginine supplementation.

Wound Bed Preparation 2021.

GENERAL PURPOSE: To present the 2021 update of the Wound Bed Preparation paradigm. TARGET AUDIENCE: This continuing education activity is intended for physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, and nurses with an interest in skin and wound care. LEARNING OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES: After participating in this educational activity, the participant will: 1. Apply wound assessment strategies. 2. Identify patient concerns about wound care. 3. Select management options for healable, nonhealable, and maintenance wounds.

Wound Bed Preparation is a paradigm to optimize chronic wound treatment. This holistic approach examines the treatment of the cause and patient-centered concerns to determine if a wound is healable, a maintenance wound, or nonhealable (palliative). For healable wounds (with adequate blood supply and a cause that can be corrected), moisture balance is indicated along with active debridement and control of local infection or abnormal inflammation. In maintenance and nonhealable wounds, the emphasis changes to patient comfort, relieving pain, controlling odor, preventing infection by decreasing bacteria on the wound surface, conservative debridement of slough, and moisture management including exudate control. In this fourth revision, the authors have reformulated the model into 10 statements. This article will focus on the literature in the last 5 years or new interpretations of older literature. This process is designed to facilitate knowledge translation in the clinical setting and improve patient outcomes at a lower cost to the healthcare system.

Heel Pressure Injuries in the Adult Critical Care Population.

Patients in critical care units have a multitude of diseases and conditions that contribute to their illness and as such are susceptible to comorbid conditions such as heel pressure injuries. Prevention is a key strategy to avoid heel pressure injury occurrence. Risk factor identification can help a clinician identify those patients at risk for a heel pressure injury requiring timely prevention strategies. The purpose of this article is to raise awareness regarding the critical care patient's vulnerability to heel pressure injuries and strategies that can help avoid their occurrence or expedite their healing if occur.

Pressure Injuries in the Pediatric Population: Analysis of the 2008-2018 International Pressure Ulcer Prevalence Survey Data.

Pediatric pressure injuries continue to be a worldwide healthcare problem. Studying pediatric pressure injury point prevalence may provide more insight into the problem and drive prevention strategies for at-risk pediatric patients, a truly vulnerable population. This article reports 10 years of longitudinal pediatric pressure injury prevalence data and demographics from around the world.

Evaluating the Impact of an Innovative Educational Program for Skin Care Champions Using the Pieper-Zulkowski Pressure Ulcer Knowledge Test.

OBJECTIVE: To assess pressure injury knowledge of Skin Care Council nursing members using the Pieper-Zulkowski Pressure Ulcer Knowledge Test (PZ-PUKT), to design an educational intervention informed by the results of the baseline assessment, and to evaluate the effect of the intervention. METHODS: This was a single-group pretest-posttest project conducted in an urban, academic, tertiary medical center from January to August 2017. Participants were measured on the pretest, received the intervention, and then were reevaluated on the posttest 3 months later. Pretest results informed the design of the intervention, which was a 1-day interactive, targeted educational program referred to as the "Skin Care Council Boot Camp." Paired-samples t tests were conducted to examine differences between pretest and posttest scores on the PZ-PUKT overall and in each test section. RESULTS: Seventy-seven participants enrolled in the project and completed the pretest. Of those, 58 (75.3%) were retained through the intervention and the posttest evaluation. Participants had a mean pretest score of 78.9 and a mean posttest score of 85.3. There were significant mean differences among pretest and posttest PZ-PUKT scores: 6.4 (t = 9.419, P < .001) overall; 4.6 (t = 5.356, P < .001) in the Prevention/Risk category; 4.1 (t = 3.668, P < .001) in the Staging category; and 10.5 (t = 7.938, P < .001) in the Wound Description category. CONCLUSIONS: By testing pressure injury knowledge before developing a program, investigators created a tailored, education program that addressed knowledge gaps. Posttest results provided insight into the program's success and opportunities for future improvement.

Acute Skin Failure in the Critical Care Patient.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this research was to build on previous work regarding predictive factors of acute skin failure (ASF) in the critically ill population. METHODS: Researchers conducted a retrospective case-control study with a main and validation analysis. Data were extracted from the New York Statewide Planning and Research Cooperative System. For the main analysis, there were 415 cases with a hospital-acquired pressure injury (HAPI) and 194,872 controls without. Researchers then randomly selected 100 cases with a HAPIs and 300 controls without for the validation analysis. A step-up logistic regression model was used. Researchers generated receiver operating characteristic curves for both the main and validation analyses, assessing the overall utility of the regression model. RESULTS: Eleven variables were significantly and independently related to ASF: renal failure (odds ratio [OR], 1.4, P = .003), respiratory failure (OR, 2.2; P = < .001), arterial disease (OR, 2.4; P = .001), impaired nutrition (OR, 2.3; P = < .001), sepsis (OR, 2.2; P = < .001), septic shock (OR, 2.3; P = < .001), mechanical ventilation (OR, 2.5; P = < .001), vascular surgery (OR, 2.2; P = .02), orthopedic surgery (OR, 3.4; P = < .001), peripheral necrosis (OR, 2.5; P = .003), and general surgery (OR, 3.8; P = < .001). The areas under the curve for the main and validation analyses were 0.864 and 0.861, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The final model supports previous work and is consistent with the current definition of ASF in the setting of critical illness.

Refining Heel Pressure Injury Risk Factors in the Hospitalized Patient.

OBJECTIVE: To replicate previous research that found four independent and significant predictors of heel pressure injuries (HPIs) in hospitalized patients using a larger and more diverse patient population. METHODS: Researchers conducted a retrospective, case-control study with a main and a validation analysis (N = 1,937). The main analysis had 1,697 patients: 323 patients who had HPIs and 1,374 who did not. The validation analysis had 240 patients: 80 patients who developed HPIs and 160 who did not. Researchers used a series of diagnosis codes to define variables associated with an HPI. Data were extracted from the New York Statewide Planning and Research Cooperative System for January 2014 to June 2015. Study authors conducted a series of forward stepwise logistic regression analyses for both samples to select the variables that were significantly and independently associated with the development of an HPI in a multivariable setting. Researchers generated a receiver operating characteristic curve using the final model to assess the regression model's ability to predict HPI development. RESULTS: Seven variables were significant and independent predictors associated with HPIs: diabetes mellitus, vascular disease, perfusion issues, impaired nutrition, age, mechanical ventilation, and surgery. The receiver operating characteristic curve demonstrated predictive accuracy of the model. CONCLUSIONS: Beyond a risk assessment scale, providers should consider other factors, such as comorbidities, which can predispose patients to HPI development.