Relationship between Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation and Autonomic Nervous System.

Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) approaches have seen a rise in utilization in both clinical and basic neuroscience in recent years. Here, we concentrate on the two methods that have received the greatest research: transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS). Both approaches have yielded pertinent data regarding the cortical excitability in subjects in good health as well as pertinent advancements in the management of various clinical disorders. NIBS is a helpful method for comprehending the cortical control of the ANS. Previous research has shown that there are notable changes in muscular sympathetic nerve activity when the motor cortex is modulated. Furthermore, in NIBS investigations, the ANS has been employed more frequently as an outcome measure to comprehend the overall impacts of these methods, including their safety profile. Though there is ample proof that brain stimulation has autonomic effects on animals, new research on the connection between NIBS and the ANS has produced contradictory findings. In order to better understand NIBS processes and ANS function, it is crucial to take into account the reciprocal relationship that exists between central modulation and ANS function.

Irisin influences the in vitro differentiation of human mesenchymal stromal cells, promoting a tendency toward beiging adipogenesis.

Mammals exhibit two distinct types of adipose depots: white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT). While WAT primarily functions as a site for energy storage, BAT serves as a thermogenic tissue that utilizes energy and glucose consumption to regulate core body temperature. Under specific stimuli such as exercise, cold exposure, and drug treatment, white adipocytes possess a remarkable ability to undergo transdifferentiation into brown-like cells known as beige adipocytes. This transformation process, known as the "browning of WAT," leads to the acquisition of new morphological and physiological characteristics by white adipocytes. We investigated the potential role of Irisin, a 12 kDa myokine that is secreted in mice and humans by skeletal muscle after physical activity, in inducing the browning process in mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs). A subset of the MSCs possesses the remarkable capability to differentiate into different cell types such as adipocytes, osteocytes, and chondrocytes. Consequently, comprehending the effects of Irisin on MSC biology becomes a crucial factor in investigating antiobesity medications. In our study, the primary objective is to evaluate the impact of Irisin on various cell types engaged in distinct stages of the differentiation process, including stem cells, committed precursors, and preadipocytes. By analyzing the effects of Irisin on these specific cell populations, our aim is to gain a comprehensive understanding of its influence throughout the entire differentiation process, rather than solely concentrating on the final differentiated cells. This approach enables us to obtain insights into the broader effects of Irisin on the cellular dynamics and mechanisms involved in adipogenesis.

The Relationship between Executive Functions and Body Weight: Sex as a Moderating Variable.

This study explores the interplay between executive functions and body weight, examining both the influence of biological factors, specifically sex, and methodological issues, such as the choice between Body Mass Index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) as the primary anthropometric measure. A total of 386 participants (222 females, mean age = 45.98 years, SD = 17.70) were enrolled, from whom sociodemographic (sex, age, years of formal education) and anthropometric (BMI and WC) data were collected. Executive functions were evaluated using the Frontal Assessment Battery-15 (FAB15). The results showed the increased effectiveness of WC over BMI in examining the relationships between executive functions, sex differences, and body weight. In particular, this study revealed that there was a significant moderating effect of sex at comparable levels of executive functioning. Specifically, women with higher executive performance had lower WCs than their male counterparts, suggesting that executive function has a greater impact on WC in women than in men. Our findings highlight the importance of conducting more in-depth investigations of the complex relationship between cognitive deficits and weight gain, considering confounding variables of behavioral, psychobiological, and neurophysiological origin.

Functional Characteristics and Coping Strategies among Rugby Athletes: A Cluster Analysis Approach.

The developing domain of mental health in sports has gained much interest, acknowledging its pivotal role in athlete performance and well-being. The aim of this research is to provide a quantitative description concerning the levels of mental health, physical activity, cognitive fusion, cognitive flexibility, and coping strategies that characterize rugby athletes by using a data-driven approach. A total of 92 rugby athletes took part in this study and filled out a set of self-administered questionnaires. A correlational analysis showed that general well-being was positively associated with years spent playing rugby (r = 0.23) and coping mechanisms (r = 0.29). Athletes' well-being was also negatively correlated with cognitive inflexibility (r = -0.41) and cognitive fusion (r = -0.39). A k-means cluster analysis identified two unique groups: group 1, characterized by higher levels of psychological well-being, lower levels of physical activity, greater cognitive flexibility, improved coping techniques, and reduced cognitive fusion, and group 2, which exhibits opposite characteristics. The discrepancies observed in psychological characteristics such as coping strategies, cognitive fusion, and cognitive inflexibility highlight their potential impact on the general health of rugby players. To comprehend the complex interplay between psychological and physical elements in rugby athletes, long-term studies with larger samples are crucial.

The "Little Circles Test" (LCT): a dusted-off tool for assessing fine visuomotor function.

BACKGROUND: The fine visuomotor function is commonly impaired in several neurological conditions. However, there is a scarcity of reliable neuropsychological tools to assess such a critical domain. AIMS: The aim of this study is to explore the psychometric properties and provide normative data for the Visual-Motor Speed and Precision Test (VMSPT). RESULTS: Our normative sample included 220 participants (130 females) aged 18-86 years (mean education = 15.24 years, SD = 3.98). Results showed that raw VMSPT scores were affected by higher age and lower education. No effect of sex or handedness was shown. Age- and education-based norms were provided. VMSPT exhibited weak-to-strong correlations with well-known neuropsychological tests, encompassing a wide range of cognitive domains of clinical relevance. By gradually intensifying the cognitive demands, the test becomes an indirect, performance-oriented measure of executive functioning. Finally, VMSPT seems proficient in capturing the speed-accuracy trade-off typically observed in the aging population. CONCLUSIONS: This study proposes the initial standardization of a versatile, time-efficient, and cost-effective neuropsychological tool for assessing fine visuomotor coordination. We propose renaming the VMSPT as the more approachable "Little Circles Test" (LCT).

Impedance Analysis to Evaluate Nutritional Status in Physiological and Pathological Conditions.

A thorough knowledge of body composition assessment techniques is the cornerstone for initiating a customized nutritional program. The second step is to consider the potential of their application in different physiological and pathological conditions and their effectiveness in the management of a monitoring pathway during dietary interventions. To date, bioimpedance analysis is the most effective and reliable method for assessing body composition due to its advantages in terms of speed of execution, non-invasiveness and low cost. Therefore, this review article aims to analyze the main concepts and application areas of bioimpedance measurement techniques, in particular vector frequency-based analysis (BIVA) systems, in order to assess their validity in both physiological and pathological conditions.

The assessment of executive functions to test the integrity of the nigrostriatal network: A pilot study.

Background: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor and non-motor symptoms. The latter mainly include affective, sleep, and cognitive deficits. Non-demented PD patients often demonstrate impairments in several executive domains following neuropsychological evaluation. The current pilot study aims at assessing the discriminatory power of the Frontal Assessment Battery-15 (FAB15) in differentiating (i) non-demented PD patients and healthy controls and (ii) PD patients with more and less pronounced motor symptoms. Methods: Thirty-nine non-demented early-stage PD patients in the "on" dopamine state (26 females, mean age = 64.51 years, SD = 6.47, mean disease duration = 5.49 years, SD = 2.28) and 39 healthy participants (24 females, mean age = 62.60 years, SD = 5.51) were included in the study. All participants completed the FAB15. Motor symptoms of PD patients were quantified via the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale-Part III (UPDRS-Part III) and Hoehn and Yahr staging scale (H&Y). Results: The FAB15 score, adjusted according to normative data for sex, age, and education, proved to be sufficiently able to discriminate PD patients from healthy controls (AUC = 0.69 [95% CI 0.60-0.75], SE = 0.06, p = 0.04, optimal cutoff = 11.29). Conversely, the battery lacked sufficient discriminative capability to differentiate PD patients based on the severity of motor symptoms. Conclusion: The FAB15 may be a valid tool for distinguishing PD patients from healthy controls. However, it might be less sensitive in identifying clinical phenotypes characterized by visuospatial impairments resulting from posteroparietal and/or temporal dysfunctions. In line with previous evidence, the battery demonstrated to be not expendable in the clinical practice for monitoring the severity of PD-related motor symptoms.

Mechanisms of Transmission and Processing of Pain: A Narrative Review.

Knowledge about the mechanisms of transmission and the processing of nociceptive information, both in healthy and pathological states, has greatly expanded in recent years. This rapid progress is due to a multidisciplinary approach involving the simultaneous use of different branches of study, such as systems neurobiology, behavioral analysis, genetics, and cell and molecular techniques. This narrative review aims to clarify the mechanisms of transmission and the processing of pain while also taking into account the characteristics and properties of nociceptors and how the immune system influences pain perception. Moreover, several important aspects of this crucial theme of human life will be discussed. Nociceptor neurons and the immune system play a key role in pain and inflammation. The interactions between the immune system and nociceptors occur within peripheral sites of injury and the central nervous system. The modulation of nociceptor activity or chemical mediators may provide promising novel approaches to the treatment of pain and chronic inflammatory disease. The sensory nervous system is fundamental in the modulation of the host's protective response, and understanding its interactions is pivotal in the process of revealing new strategies for the treatment of pain.

Higher general executive functions predicts lower body mass index by mitigating avoidance behaviors.

Background: The present study examines the relationship between obesity, executive functions, and body image in a nonclinical population from southern Italy. Methods: General executive functioning (Frontal Assessment Battery-15), and body image disturbances (Body Uneasiness Test) were assessed in a sample including 255 participants (138 females, M age = 43.51 years, SD = 17.94, range = 18-86 years; M body mass index (BMI) = 26.21, SD = 4.32, range = 18.03-38.79). Findings: Multiple Linear Regression Analysis indicated that age, years of education, FAB15 score, body image concerns, and avoidance predicted the variance of BMI. A subsequent mediation analysis highlighted that the indirect effect of FAB15 on BMI through avoidance was statistically significant. Interpretation: Our results suggest that more performing executive functioning predicts a decrease in BMI that is partially due to the mitigation of avoidance behaviors.

Molecular and Physiological Effects of Browning Agents on White Adipocytes from Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stromal Cells.

Two different types of adipose depots can be observed in mammals: white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT). The primary role of WAT is to deposit surplus energy in the form of triglycerides, along with many metabolic and hormonal activities; as thermogenic tissue, BAT has the distinct characteristic of using energy and glucose consumption as a strategy to maintain the core body temperature. Under specific stimuli-such as exercise, cold exposure, and drug treatment-white adipocytes can utilize their extraordinary flexibility to transdifferentiate into brown-like cells, called beige adipocytes, thereby acquiring new morphological and physiological characteristics. For this reason, the process is identified as the 'browning of WAT'. We evaluated the ability of some drugs, including GW501516, sildenafil, and rosiglitazone, to induce the browning process of adult white adipocytes obtained from differentiated mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs). In addition, we broadened our investigation by evaluating the potential browning capacity of IRISIN, a myokine that is stimulated by muscular exercises. Our data indicate that IRISIN was effective in promoting the browning of white adipocytes, which acquire increased expression of UCP1, increased mitochondrial mass, and modification in metabolism, as suggested by an increase of mitochondrial oxygen consumption, primarily in presence of glucose as a nutrient. These promising browning agents represent an appealing focus in the therapeutic approaches to counteracting metabolic diseases and their associated obesity.

The Neglected Factor in the Relationship between Executive Functioning and Obesity: The Role of Motor Control.

BACKGROUND: The association between obesity and executive functions (EFs) is highly controversial. It has been suggested that waist circumference (WC), compared to body mass index (BMI), is a better indicator of fat mass and EFs in obesity. Moreover, according to the viewpoint that the brain's functional architecture meets the need for interactive behavior, we hypothesize that the relationship between EFs and body weight might be mediated by the motor performance. METHODS: General executive functioning (frontal assessment battery-15), additional cognitive subdomains (trail making test and digit span backward), and motor performance (finger tapping task) were assessed in a sample that included 330 volunteers (192 females, M age = 45.98 years, SD = 17.70, range = 18-86 years). RESULTS: Hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the FAB15 score and FTT negatively predicted WC but not BMI. A subsequent mediation analysis highlighted that the indirect effect of FAB15 on WC through finger tapping was statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that WC, as compared to BMI, is a more effective measure for studying the association between EFs and body weight. Still, we found that the motor domain partially mediates the dynamics of such a relationship.

Factorial Model of Obese Adolescents: The Role of Body Image Concerns and Selective Depersonalization-A Pilot Study.

BACKGROUND: The relationship binding body weight to psychological well-being is unclear. The present study aims at identifying the contribution, and specificity, of some dimensions (i.e., eating-related symptoms, body image disorders, eating habits, personality traits, and emotional difficulties) characterizing the psychological profile of obese adolescents (749 participants, 325 females; 58.3% normal-weight, 29.9% overweight, and 11.7% obese; mean age = 16.05, SD = 0.82). METHODS: By introducing the scores obtained by standardized self-report tools into a generalized linear model, a factorial reduction design was used to detect the best fitting discriminant functions and the principal components explaining the higher proportion of the variance. RESULTS: We found two discriminant functions correctly classifying 87.1% of normal-weight, 57.2% of overweight, and 68.2% of obese adolescents. Furthermore, two independent factors, explaining 69.68% of the total variance, emerged. CONCLUSIONS: The first factor, "Body Image Concerns", included the drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, and interpersonal distrust. The second factor, "Selective Depersonalization", included a trend toward depersonalization and dissatisfaction with the torso. The neurophysiological implications of our findings will be discussed.

The Role of Nutraceutical Supplements, Monacolin K and Astaxanthin, and Diet in Blood Cholesterol Homeostasis in Patients with Myopathy.

Several studies suggest that different combinations of nutraceutical supplements may improve the lipid profile, representing a viable alternative to statins. However, their effects on individuals with myopathy need to be investigated. The aim of our study was to explore the mid- and long-term physiological effects of monacolin k (5 mg) and astaxanthin (0.1 mg) supplements in association with a low-energy/fat diet in a group of subjects with mild myopathy. Eighty subjects (44 women) took part in this observational study. Participants were assigned to the experimental group (EG, n = 40, 24 women) treated with a low-energy/fat diet (1200-1500 Kcal/day and 15-20% lipids) in combination with monacolin k (5 mg) and astaxanthin (0.1 mg) supplementation, and to the control group (CG, n = 40, 20 women) treated only with a low-energy/fat diet (1200-1500 Kcal/day and 15-20% lipids). BMI and biochemical parameters (blood glucose, total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, triglycerides, C-reactive protein (CRP) and creatine phosphokinase-CPK) were collected at baseline (T0), after 12 (T1) and 24 (T2) weeks. A mixed factorial ANOVA was performed to determine if there were significant main effects and/or interactions between time and treatment. Treatment (EG vs. CG) was entered as the between-subjects factor and time (T0 vs. T1 vs. T2) as the within-subject factor. We found a significant improvement in total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, PCR and CPK parameters in EG compared with CG. Our results highlight the efficacy and safety of combined use of monacolin k (5 mg) and astaxanthin (0.1 mg) in combination with a low-energy/fat diet in the treatment of dyslipidemia.

Functional Relationship between Inhibitory Control, Cognitive Flexibility, Psychomotor Speed and Obesity.

In the last decades, it has been proposed that executive functions may be particularly vulnerable to weight-related issues. However, evidence on the matter is mixed, especially when the effects of sociodemographic variables are weighted. Thus, the current study aimed at further examining the relationship between executive functions and obesity. To this aim, we compared treatment-seeking overweight, obese, and morbidly obese patients with normal-weight control participants. We examined general executive functioning (Frontal Assessment Battery−15) and different executive subdomains (e.g., inhibitory control, verbal fluency, and psychomotor speed) in a clinical sample including 208 outpatients with different degrees of BMI (52 overweight, BMI 25−30, M age = 34.38; 76 obese, BMI 30−40, M age = 38.00; 80 morbidly obese, BMI > 40, M age = 36.20). Ninety-six normal-weight subjects served as controls. No difference on executive scores was detected when obese patients were compared with over- or normal-weight subjects. Morbidly obese patients reported lower performance on executive scores than obese, overweight, and normal-weight subjects. Between-group difference emerged also when relevant covariates were taken into account. Our results support the view that morbid obesity is associated with lower executive performance, also considering the critical role exerted by sociodemographic (i.e., sex, age, and education) variables. Our results support the view that executive functioning should be accounted into the management of the obese patient because of non-negligible clinical relevance in diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic terms.

Physiological Role of Orexinergic System for Health.

Orexins, or hypocretins, are excitatory neuropeptides involved in the regulation of feeding behavior and the sleep and wakefulness states. Since their discovery, several lines of evidence have highlighted that orexin neurons regulate a great range of physiological functions, giving it the definition of a multitasking system. In the present review, we firstly describe the mechanisms underlining the orexin system and their interactions with the central nervous system (CNS). Then, the system's involvement in goal-directed behaviors, sleep/wakefulness state regulation, feeding behavior and energy homeostasis, reward system, and aging and neurodegenerative diseases are described. Advanced evidence suggests that the orexin system is crucial for regulating many physiological functions and could represent a promising target for therapeutical approaches to obesity, drug addiction, and emotional stress.

Executive Functions in Overweight and Obese Treatment-Seeking Patients: Cross-Sectional Data and Longitudinal Perspectives.

BACKGROUND: Recent evidence suggests that a higher body weight may be linked to cognitive impairment in different domains involving executive/frontal functioning. However, challenging results are also available. Accordingly, our study was designed to verify whether (i) poor executive functions are related to a higher body weight and (ii) executive functioning could contribute to weight loss in treatment-seeking overweight and obese patients. METHODS: We examined general executive functioning, inhibitory control, verbal fluency, and psychomotor speed in a sample including 104 overweight and obese patients. Forty-eight normal-weight subjects participated in the study as controls. RESULTS: Univariate Analysis of Variance showed that obese patients obtained lower scores than overweight and normal-weight subjects in all executive measures, except for errors in the Stroop test. However, when sociodemographic variables entered the model as covariates, no between-group difference was detected. Furthermore, an adjusted multiple linear regression model highlighted no relationship between weight loss and executive scores at baseline. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide further evidence for the lack of association between obesity and the executive domains investigated. Conflicting findings from previous literature may likely be due to the unchecked confounding effects exerted by sociodemographic variables and inclusion/exclusion criteria.

Evaluation of Browning Agents on the White Adipogenesis of Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stromal Cells: A Contribution to Fighting Obesity.

Brown-like adipocytes can be induced in white fat depots by a different environmental or drug stimuli, known as "browning" or "beiging". These brite adipocytes express thermogenin UCP1 protein and show different metabolic advantages, such as the ability to acquire a thermogenic phenotype corresponding to standard brown adipocytes that counteracts obesity. In this research, we evaluated the effects of several browning agents during white adipocyte differentiation of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs). Our in vitro findings identified two compounds that may warrant further in vivo investigation as possible anti-obesity drugs. We found that rosiglitazone and sildenafil are the most promising drug candidates for a browning treatment of obesity. These drugs are already available on the market for treating diabetes and erectile dysfunction, respectively. Thus, their off-label use may be contemplated, but it must be emphasized that some severe side effects are associated with use of these drugs.

The Important Role of Adiponectin and Orexin-A, Two Key Proteins Improving Healthy Status: Focus on Physical Activity.

Exercise represents the most important integrative therapy in metabolic, immunologic and chronic diseases; it represents a valid strategy in the non-pharmacological intervention of lifestyle linked diseases. A large body of evidence indicates physical exercise as an effective measure against chronic non-communicable diseases. The worldwide general evidence for health benefits are both for all ages and skill levels. In a dysregulated lifestyle such as in the obesity, there is an imbalance in the production of different cytokines. In particular, we focused on Adiponectin, an adipokine producted by adipose tissue, and on Orexin-A, a neuropeptide synthesized in the lateral hypothalamus. The production of both Adiponectin and Orexin-A increases following regular and structured physical activity and both these hormones have similar actions. Indeed, they improve energy and glucose metabolism, and also modulate energy expenditure and thermogenesis. In addition, a relevant biological role of Adiponectin and Orexin A has been recently highlighted in the immune system, where they function as immune-suppressor factors. The strong connection between these two cytokines and healthy status is mediated by physical activity and candidates these hormones as potential biomarkers of the beneficial effects induced by physical activity. For these reasons, this review aims to underly the interconnections among Adiponectin, Orexin-A, physical activity and healthy status. Furthermore, it is analyzed the involvement of Adiponectin and Orexin-A in physical activity as physiological factors improving healthy status through physical exercise.

Attentional bias in the radial and vertical dimensions of space.

Under visual guidance, healthy subjects usually misbisect radial lines farther than, and vertical lines above the true center. It was suggested that radial and vertical misbisection depended on the presence of an attentional bias toward far/upper space. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether such attentional bias depends on a single mechanism or on separate mechanisms. Ninety participants were asked to bisect lines radially and vertically oriented. The results confirmed the presence of a consistent bisection bias farther than (radial lines), and above (vertical lines) the true center. Furthermore, there was a significant correlation between radial and vertical bisection errors. These findings suggest that a single neural mechanism is involved in producing the attentional bias toward far/upper space.