Postmitotic Hoxa5 Expression Specifies Pontine Neuron Positional Identity and Input Connectivity of Cortical Afferent Subsets.

The mammalian precerebellar pontine nucleus (PN) has a main role in relaying cortical information to the cerebellum. The molecular determinants establishing ordered connectivity patterns between cortical afferents and precerebellar neurons are largely unknown. We show that expression of Hox5 transcription factors is induced in specific subsets of postmitotic PN neurons at migration onset. Hox5 induction is achieved by response to retinoic acid signaling, resulting in Jmjd3-dependent derepression of Polycomb chromatin and 3D conformational changes. Hoxa5 drives neurons to settle posteriorly in the PN, where they are monosynaptically targeted by cortical neuron subsets mainly carrying limb somatosensation. Furthermore, Hoxa5 postmigratory ectopic expression in PN neurons is sufficient to attract cortical somatosensory inputs regardless of position and avoid visual afferents. Transcriptome analysis further suggests that Hoxa5 is involved in circuit formation. Thus, Hoxa5 coordinates postmitotic specification, migration, settling position, and sub-circuit assembly of PN neuron subsets in the cortico-cerebellar pathway.

Otx2 promotes granule cell precursor proliferation and Shh-dependent medulloblastoma maintenance in vivo.

The developmental gene OTX2 is expressed by cerebellar granule cell precursors (GCPs), a cell population which undergoes massive expansion during the early postnatal period in response to sonic hedgehog (Shh). GCPs are thought to be at the origin of most medulloblastomas, a devastating paediatric cancer that arises in the developing cerebellum. OTX2 is overexpressed in all types of medulloblastomas, except in Shh-dependent type 2 medulloblastomas, although it has GCPs as cell-of-origin. This has led to the current view that OTX2 is not involved in tumorigenesis of this subgroup. How OTX2 might contribute to normal or tumoral GCP development in vivo remains unresolved. Here, we have investigated, for the first time, the physiological function of this factor in regulating proliferation and tumorigenesis in the developing mouse cerebellum. We first characterized Otx2-expressing cells in the early postnatal cerebellum and showed that they represent a unique subpopulation of highly proliferative GCPs. We next performed in vivo loss-of-function analysis to dissect out the role of Otx2 in these cells and identified a novel, Shh-independent, function for this factor in controlling postnatal GCP proliferation and cerebellum morphogenesis. Finally, we addressed the function of Otx2 in the context of type 2 medulloblastomas by directing Shh-dependent tumour formation in Otx2+ cells of the developing cerebellum and assessing the effects of Otx2 ablation in this context. We unravel an unexpected, mandatory function for Otx2 in sustaining cell proliferation and long-term maintenance of these tumours in vivo, therefore bringing unpredicted insight into the mechanisms of type 2 medulloblastoma subsistence. Together, these data pinpoint, for the first time, a crucial Shh-independent role for Otx2 in the control of proliferation of normal and tumoral granule cell precursors in vivo and make it an attractive candidate for targeted therapy in Shh-dependent medulloblastomas.

Hox2 Genes Are Required for Tonotopic Map Precision and Sound Discrimination in the Mouse Auditory Brainstem.

Tonotopy is a hallmark of auditory pathways and provides the basis for sound discrimination. Little is known about the involvement of transcription factors in brainstem cochlear neurons orchestrating the tonotopic precision of pre-synaptic input. We found that in the absence of Hoxa2 and Hoxb2 function in Atoh1-derived glutamatergic bushy cells of the anterior ventral cochlear nucleus, broad input topography and sound transmission were largely preserved. However, fine-scale synaptic refinement and sharpening of isofrequency bands of cochlear neuron activation upon pure tone stimulation were impaired in Hox2 mutants, resulting in defective sound-frequency discrimination in behavioral tests. These results establish a role for Hox factors in tonotopic refinement of connectivity and in ensuring the precision of sound transmission in the mammalian auditory circuit.

Ezh2 orchestrates topographic migration and connectivity of mouse precerebellar neurons.

We investigated the role of histone methyltransferase Ezh2 in tangential migration of mouse precerebellar pontine nuclei, the main relay between neocortex and cerebellum. By counteracting the sonic hedgehog pathway, Ezh2 represses Netrin1 in dorsal hindbrain, which allows normal pontine neuron migration. In Ezh2 mutants, ectopic Netrin1 derepression results in abnormal migration and supernumerary nuclei integrating in brain circuitry. Moreover, intrinsic topographic organization of pontine nuclei according to rostrocaudal progenitor origin is maintained throughout migration and correlates with patterned cortical input. Ezh2 maintains spatially restricted Hox expression, which, in turn, regulates differential expression of the repulsive receptor Unc5b in migrating neurons; together, they generate subsets with distinct responsiveness to environmental Netrin1. Thus, Ezh2-dependent epigenetic regulation of intrinsic and extrinsic transcriptional programs controls topographic neuronal guidance and connectivity in the cortico-ponto-cerebellar pathway.

Opposing roles for Hoxa2 and Hoxb2 in hindbrain oligodendrocyte patterning.

Oligodendrocytes are the myelin-forming cells of the vertebrate CNS. Little is known about the molecular control of region-specific oligodendrocyte development. Here, we show that oligodendrogenesis in the mouse rostral hindbrain, which is organized in a metameric series of rhombomere-derived (rd) territories, follows a rhombomere-specific pattern, with extensive production of oligodendrocytes in the pontine territory (r4d) and delayed and reduced oligodendrocyte production in the prepontine region (r2d, r3d). We demonstrate that segmental organization of oligodendrocytes is controlled by Hox genes, namely Hoxa2 and Hoxb2. Specifically, Hoxa2 loss of function induced a dorsoventral enlargement of the Olig2/Nkx2.2-expressing oligodendrocyte progenitor domain, whereas conditional Hoxa2 overexpression in the Olig2(+) domain inhibited oligodendrogenesis throughout the brain. In contrast, Hoxb2 deletion resulted in a reduction of the pontine oligodendrogenic domain. Compound Hoxa2(-/-)/Hoxb2(-/-) mutant mice displayed the phenotype of Hoxb2(-/-) mutants in territories coexpressing Hoxa2 and Hoxb2 (rd3, rd4), indicating that Hoxb2 antagonizes Hoxa2 during rostral hindbrain oligodendrogenesis. This study provides the first in vivo evidence that Hox genes determine oligodendrocyte regional identity in the mammalian brain.

The role of Robo3 in the development of cortical interneurons.

A number of studies in recent years have shown that members of the Roundabout (Robo) receptor family, Robo1 and Robo2, play significant roles in the formation of axonal tracks in the developing forebrain and in the migration and morphological differentiation of cortical interneurons. Here, we investigated the expression and function of Robo3 in the developing cortex. We found that this receptor is strongly expressed in the preplate layer and cortical hem of the early cortex where it colocalizes with markers of Cajal-Retzius cells and interneurons. Analysis of Robo3 mutant mice at early (embryonic day [E] 13.5) and late (E18.5) stages of corticogenesis revealed no significant change in the number of interneurons, but a change in their morphology at E13.5. However, preliminary analysis on a small number of mice that lacked all 3 Robo receptors indicated a marked reduction in the number of cortical interneurons, but only a limited effect on their morphology. These observations and the results of other recent studies suggest a complex interplay between the 3 Robo receptors in regulating the number, migration and morphological differentiation of cortical interneurons.

Hox paralog group 2 genes control the migration of mouse pontine neurons through slit-robo signaling.

The pontine neurons (PN) represent a major source of mossy fiber projections to the cerebellum. During mouse hindbrain development, PN migrate tangentially and sequentially along both the anteroposterior (AP) and dorsoventral (DV) axes. Unlike DV migration, which is controlled by the Netrin-1/Dcc attractive pathway, little is known about the molecular mechanisms guiding PN migration along the AP axis. Here, we show that Hoxa2 and Hoxb2 are required both intrinsically and extrinsically to maintain normal AP migration of subsets of PN, by preventing their premature ventral attraction towards the midline. Moreover, the migration defects observed in Hoxa2 and Hoxb2 mutant mice were phenocopied in compound Robo1;Robo2, Slit1;Slit2, and Robo2;Slit2 knockout animals, indicating that these guidance molecules act downstream of Hox genes to control PN migration. Indeed, using chromatin immunoprecipitation assays, we further demonstrated that Robo2 is a direct target of Hoxa2 in vivo and that maintenance of high Robo and Slit expression levels was impaired in Hoxa2 mutant mice. Lastly, the analysis of Phox2b-deficient mice indicated that the facial motor nucleus is a major Slit signaling source required to prevent premature ventral migration of PN. These findings provide novel insights into the molecular control of neuronal migration from transcription factor to regulation of guidance receptor and ligand expression. Specifically, they address the question of how exposure to multiple guidance cues along the AP and DV axes is regulated at the transcriptional level and in turn translated into stereotyped migratory responses during tangential migration of neurons in the developing mammalian brain.

Molecular mechanisms controlling midline crossing by precerebellar neurons.

Precerebellar neurons of the inferior olive (IO) and lateral reticular nucleus (LRN) migrate tangentially from the rhombic lip toward the floor plate following parallel pathways. This process is thought to involve netrin-1 attraction. However, whereas the cell bodies of LRN neurons cross the midline, IO neurons are unable to do so. In many systems and species, axon guidance and cell migration at the midline are controlled by Slits and their receptor Robos. We showed previously that precerebellar axons and neurons do not cross the midline in the absence of the Robo3 receptor. To determine whether this signaling by Slits and the two other Robo receptors, Robo1 and Robo2, also regulates precerebellar neuron behavior at the floor plate, we studied the phenotype of Slit1/2 and Robo1/2/3 compound mutants. Our results showed that many IO neurons can cross the midline in absence of Slit1/2 or Robo1/2, supporting a role for midline repellents in guiding precerebellar neurons. We also show that these molecules control the development of the lamellation of the inferior olivary complex. Last, the analysis of Robo1/2/3 triple mutants suggests that Robo3 inhibits Robo1/2 repulsion in precrossing LRN axons but not in IO axons in which it has a dominant and distinct function.

Robos and slits control the pathfinding and targeting of mouse olfactory sensory axons.

Odorants are detected by olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) located in the olfactory epithelium. In mice, ORNs expressing the same odorant receptor (OR) project to a single glomerulus out of 1800 in the olfactory bulb (OB). It has been proposed that OR-derived cAMP signals guide ORN axons to their glomeruli rather than OR themselves. Recently, it has also been shown that the axon guidance molecule Slit1 and its receptor Robo2 control the dorsoventral segregation of ORN axons as they are projecting to the OB. We have analyzed the development of olfactory projections in Slit1/Slit2 and Robo1/Robo2 single and double mutants. We show that in Robo1-/-;Robo2-/- mice, most ORN axons fail to enter the OB and instead project caudally into the diencephalon. Moreover, in these mice, ORN axons expressing the same OR project to several glomeruli at ectopic positions. Thus, Slit1, Slit2, Robo1, and Robo2 cooperate to control the convergence of ORN axons to the OB and the precise targeting of ORN axons to specific glomeruli.

Robo1 and Robo2 cooperate to control the guidance of major axonal tracts in the mammalian forebrain.

The function of the nervous system depends on the precision of axon wiring during development. Previous studies have demonstrated that Slits, a family of secreted chemorepellent proteins, are crucial for the proper development of several major forebrain tracts. Mice deficient in Slit2 or, even more so, in both Slit1 and Slit2 have defects in multiple axonal pathways, including corticofugal, thalamocortical, and callosal connections. In the spinal cord, members of the Robo family of proteins help mediate the function of Slits, but the relative contribution of these receptors to the guidance of forebrain projections remains to be determined. In the present study, we addressed the function of Robo1 and Robo2 in the guidance of forebrain projections by analyzing Robo1-, Robo2-, and Robo1;Robo2-deficient mice. Mice deficient in Robo2 and, more dramatically, in both Robo1 and Robo2, display prominent axon guidance errors in the development of corticofugal, thalamocortical, and corticocortical callosal connections. Our results demonstrate that Robo1 and Robo2 mostly cooperate to mediate the function of Slit proteins in guiding the major forebrain projections.

Robo1 and robo2 control the development of the lateral olfactory tract.

The development of olfactory bulb projections that form the lateral olfactory tract (LOT) is still poorly understood. It is known that the septum secretes Slit1 and Slit2 which repel olfactory axons in vitro and that in Slit1-/-;Slit2-/- mutant mice, the LOT is profoundly disrupted. However, the involvement of Slit receptors, the roundabout (Robo) proteins, in guiding LOT axons has not been demonstrated. We show here that both Robo1 and Robo2 receptors are expressed on early developing LOT axons, but that only Robo2 is present at later developmental stages. Olfactory bulb axons from Robo1-/-;Robo2-/- double-mutant mice are not repelled by Slit in vitro. The LOT develops normally in Robo1-/- mice, but is completely disorganized in Robo2-/- and Robo1-/-;Robo2-/- double-mutant embryos, with many LOT axons spreading along the ventral surface of the telencephalon. Finally, the position of lot1-expressing cells, which have been proposed to be the LOT guidepost cells, appears unaffected in Slit1-/-;Slit2-/- mice and in Robo1-/-;Robo2-/- mice. Together, our results indicate that Robo1 and Robo2 directly mediate the repulsive activity of Slit receptors on LOT axons, and are required for normal guidance of these axons in vivo.