Hepatocyte-independent PAR1-biased signaling controls liver pathology in experimental obesity.

BACKGROUND: Protease-activated receptor-1 (PAR1) has emerged as an important link between coagulation and the complications of obesity including metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). PAR1 is expressed by various cells and cleaved by different proteases to generate unique tethered agonists that activate distinct signaling pathways. Mice expressing PAR1 with an R41Q mutation have disabled canonical thrombin-mediated signaling, whereas R46Q mice express PAR1 resistant to noncanonical signaling by activated protein C. METHODS: Mice with whole body and hepatocyte-selective PAR1 deficiency as well as PAR1 R41Q and R46Q mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) to induce MASLD. RESULTS: HFD-fed R41Q mice displayed reduced hepatic steatosis and liver/body weight ratio. In contrast, HFD-fed R46Q mice displayed increased relative liver weight and hepatic steatosis alongside increased serum alanine aminotransferase activity. Surprisingly, despite the distinct impact of PAR1 mutations on steatosis, selective deletion of PAR1 in hepatocytes had no impact. To evaluate a viable PAR1-targeted approach, mice with HFD-induced obesity were treated with the allosteric PAR1 modulator NRD-21, which inhibits canonical PAR1 inflammatory signaling but promotes PAR1 protective, noncanonical anti-inflammatory signaling. NRD-21 treatment reduced plasma tumor necrosis factor-alpha, serum alanine aminotransferase activity, hepatic steatosis, and insulin resistance (Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance) but increased plasma active glucagon-like peptide-1. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that nonhepatocellular canonical PAR1 cleavage drives MASLD in obese mice and provide translational proof-of-concept that selective pharmacologic modulation of PAR1 yields multiple metabolic benefits in experimental obesity.

Characterizing Modulators of Protease-activated Receptors with a Calcium Mobilization Assay Using a Plate Reader.

Changes in calcium concentration in cells are rapidly monitored in a high-throughput fashion with the use of intracellular, fluorescent, calcium-binding dyes and imaging instruments that can measure fluorescent emissions from up to 1,536 wells simultaneously. However, these instruments are much more expensive and can be challenging to maintain relative to widely available plate readers that scan wells individually. Described here is an optimized plate reader assay for use with an endothelial cell line (EA.hy926) to measure the protease-activated receptor (PAR)-driven activation of Gαq signaling and subsequent calcium mobilization using the calcium-binding dye Fluo-4. This assay has been used to characterize a range of PAR ligands, including the allosteric PAR1-targeting anti-inflammatory "parmodulin" ligands identified in the Dockendorff lab. This protocol obviates the need for an automated liquid handler and permits the medium-throughput screening of PAR ligands in 96-well plates and should be applicable to the study of other receptors that initiate calcium mobilization.

Reversal of the renal hyperglycemic memory in diabetic kidney disease by targeting sustained tubular p21 expression.

A major obstacle in diabetes is the metabolic or hyperglycemic memory, which lacks specific therapies. Here we show that glucose-mediated changes in gene expression largely persist in diabetic kidney disease (DKD) despite reversing hyperglycemia. The senescence-associated cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 (Cdkn1a) was the top hit among genes persistently induced by hyperglycemia and was associated with induction of the p53-p21 pathway. Persistent p21 induction was confirmed in various animal models, human samples and in vitro models. Tubular and urinary p21-levels were associated with DKD severity and remained elevated despite improved blood glucose levels in humans. Mechanistically, sustained tubular p21 expression in DKD is linked to demethylation of its promoter and reduced DNMT1 expression. Two disease resolving agents, protease activated protein C (3K3A-aPC) and parmodulin-2, reversed sustained tubular p21 expression, tubular senescence, and DKD. Thus, p21-dependent tubular senescence is a pathway contributing to the hyperglycemic memory, which can be therapeutically targeted.

The Evolving Concept of Neuro-Thromboinflammation for Neurodegenerative Disorders and Neurotrauma: A Rationale for PAR1-Targeting Therapies.

Interest in the role of coagulation and fibrinolysis in the nervous system was active in several laboratories dating back before cloning of the functional thrombin receptor in 1991. As one of those, our attention was initially on thrombin and plasminogen activators in synapse formation and elimination in the neuromuscular system, with orientation towards diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and how clotting and fibrinolytic pathways fit into its pathogenesis. This perspective is on neuro-thromboinflammation, emphasizing this emerging concept from studies and reports over more than three decades. It underscores how it may lead to novel therapeutic approaches to treat the ravages of neurotrauma and neurodegenerative diseases, with a focus on PAR1, ALS, and parmodulins.

A thrombin-PAR1/2 feedback loop amplifies thromboinflammatory endothelial responses to the viral RNA analogue poly(I:C).

Activation of blood coagulation and endothelial inflammation are hallmarks of respiratory infections with RNA viruses that contribute significantly to the morbidity and mortality of patients with severe disease. We investigated how signaling by coagulation proteases affects the quality and extent of the response to the TLR3-ligand poly(I:C) in human endothelial cells. Genome-wide RNA profiling documented additive and synergistic effects of thrombin and poly(I:C) on the expression level of many genes. The most significantly active genes exhibiting synergistic induction by costimulation with thrombin and poly(I:C) included the key mediators of 2 critical biological mechanisms known to promote endothelial thromboinflammatory functions: the initiation of blood coagulation by tissue factor and the control of leukocyte trafficking by the endothelial-leukocyte adhesion receptors E-selectin (gene symbol, SELE) and VCAM1, and the cytokines and chemokines CXCL8, IL-6, CXCL2, and CCL20. Mechanistic studies have indicated that synergistic costimulation with thrombin and poly(I:C) requires proteolytic activation of protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) by thrombin and transactivation of PAR2 by the PAR1-tethered ligand. Accordingly, a small-molecule PAR2 inhibitor suppressed poly(I:C)/thrombin-induced leukocyte-endothelial adhesion, cytokine production, and endothelial tissue factor expression. In summary, this study describes a positive feedback mechanism by which thrombin sustains and amplifies the prothrombotic and proinflammatory function of endothelial cells exposed to the viral RNA analogue, poly(I:C) via activation of PAR1/2.

Route exploration and synthesis of the reported pyridone-based PDI inhibitor STK076545.

The enzyme protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) is essential for the correct folding of proteins and the activation of certain cell surface receptors, and is a promising target for the treatment of cancer and thrombotic conditions. A previous high-throughput screen identified the commercial compound STK076545 as a promising PDI inhibitor. To confirm its activity and support further biological studies, a resynthesis was pursued of the reported ß-keto-amide with an N-alkylated pyridone at the α-position. Numerous conventional approaches were complicated by undesired fragmentations or rearrangements. However, a successful 5-step synthetic route was achieved using an aldol reaction with an α-pyridone allyl ester as a key step. An X-ray crystal structure of the final compound confirmed that the reported structure of STK076545 was achieved, however its lack of PDI activity and inconsistent spectral data suggest that the commercial structure was misassigned.

Modified Synthesis of the Peptidomimetic Natriuretic Peptide Receptor-C Antagonist M372049.

The Natriuretic Peptide Receptors (NPRs) regulate vascular sodium levels and have been of significant interest for the potential treatment of hypertension and related cardiovascular complications. The peptidomimetic antagonist M372049 is a valuable probe for the study of NPR-C signaling, unfortunately it is presently not commercially available. Described is a detailed protocol for its synthesis that does not require specialized apparatus and builds upon a prior patent from Veale and colleagues. Key steps include a base-mediated lactam formation and a solid-supported peptide synthetic sequence. An X-ray crystal structure of a key lactam intermediate was obtained to confirm the structure and relative stereochemistry of the compound.

Synthesis and initial pharmacology of dual-targeting ligands for putative complexes of integrin αVß3 and PAR2.

Unpublished data from our labs led us to hypothesize that activated protein C (aPC) may initiate an anti-inflammatory signal in endothelial cells by modulating both the integrin αVß3 and protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2), which may exist in close proximity on the cellular surface. To test this hypothesis and to probe the possible inflammation-related pathway, we designed and synthesized dual-targeting ligands composed of modified versions of two αVß3 ligands and two agonists of PAR2. These novel ligands were connected via copper-catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloadditions with polyethylene glycol (PEG) spacers of variable length. Initial in vitro pharmacology with EA.hy926 and HUVEC endothelial cells indicated that these ligands are effective binders of αVß3 and potent agonists of PAR2. These were also used in preliminary studies investigating their effects on PAR2 signaling in the presence of inflammatory agents, and represent the first examples of ligands targeting both PARs and integrins, though concurrent binding to αVß3 and PAR2 has not yet been demonstrated.

An anthrone-based Kv7.2/7.3 channel blocker with improved properties for the investigation of psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders.

A set of novel Kv7.2/7.3 (KCNQ2/3) channel blockers was synthesized to address several liabilities of the known compounds XE991 (metabolic instability and CYP inhibition) and the clinical compound DMP 543 (acid instability, insolubility, and lipophilicity). Using the anthrone scaffold of the prior channel blockers, alternative heteroarylmethyl substituents were installed via enolate alkylation reactions. Incorporation of a pyridazine and a fluorinated pyridine gave an analog (compound 18, JDP-107) with a promising combination of potency (IC50 = 0.16 µM in a Kv7.2 thallium flux assay), efficacy in a Kv7.2/7.3 patch clamp assay, and drug-like properties.

ß-Fluorofentanyls Are pH-Sensitive Mu Opioid Receptor Agonists.

The concept recently postulated by Stein and co-workers (Science 2017, 355, 966) that mu opioid receptor (MOR) agonists possessing amines with attenuated basicity show pH-dependent activity and can selectively act at damaged, low pH tissues has been additionally supported by in vitro studies reported here. We synthesized and tested analogs of fentanyl possessing one or two fluorine atoms at the beta position of the phenethylamine side chain, with additional fluorines optionally added to the benzene ring of the side chain. These compounds were synthesized in 1 to 3 steps from commercial building blocks. The novel bis-fluorinated analog RR-49 showed superior pH sensitivity, with full efficacy relative to DAMGO, but with 19-fold higher potency (IC50) in a MOR cAMP assay at pH 6.5 versus 7.4. Such compounds hold significant promise as analgesics for inflammatory pain with reduced abuse potential.

NMR Structural Analysis of Isolated Shaker Voltage-Sensing Domain in LPPG Micelles.

The voltage-sensing domain (VSD) is a conserved structural module that regulates the gating of voltage-dependent ion channels in response to a change in membrane potential. Although the structures of many VSD-containing ion channels are now available, our understanding of the structural dynamics associated with gating transitions remains limited. To probe dynamics with site-specific resolution, we utilized NMR spectroscopy to characterize the VSD derived from Shaker potassium channel in 1-palmitoyl-2-hydroxy-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (LPPG) micelles. The backbone dihedral angles predicted based on secondary chemical shifts using torsion angle likeliness obtained from shift (TALOS+) showed that the Shaker-VSD shares many structural features with the homologous Kv1.2/2.1 chimera, including a transition from α-helix to 310 helix in the C-terminal portion of the fourth transmembrane helix. Nevertheless, there are clear differences between the Shaker-VSD and Kv1.2/2.1 chimera in the S2-S3 linker and S3 transmembrane region, where the organization of secondary structure elements in Shaker-VSD appears to more closely resemble the KvAP-VSD. Comparison of microsecond-long molecular dynamics simulations of Kv 1.2-VSD in LPPG micelles and a 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) bilayer showed that LPPG micelles do not induce significant structural distortion in the isolated voltage sensor. To assess the integrity of the tertiary fold, we directly probed the binding of BrMT analog 2-[2-({[3-(2-amino-ethyl)-6-bromo-1H-indol-2-yl]methoxy}k7methyl)-6-bromo-1H-indol-3-yl]ethan-1-amine (BrET), a gating modifier toxin, and identified the location of the putative binding site. Our results suggest that the Shaker-VSD in LPPG micelles is in a native-like fold and is likely to provide valuable insights into the dynamics of voltage-gating and its regulation.

The parmodulin NRD-21 is an allosteric inhibitor of PAR1 Gq signaling with improved anti-inflammatory activity and stability.

Novel analogs of the allosteric, biased PAR1 ligand ML161 (parmodulin 2, PM2) were prepared in order to identify potential anti-thrombotic and anti-inflammatory compounds of the parmodulin class with improved properties. Investigations of structure-activity relationships of the western portion of the 1,3-diaminobenzene scaffold were performed using an intracellular calcium mobilization assay with endothelial cells, and several heterocycles were identified that inhibited PAR1 at sub-micromolar concentrations. The oxazole NRD-21 was profiled in additional detail, and it was confirmed to act as a selective, reversible, negative allosteric modulator of PAR1. In addition to inhibiting human platelet aggregation, it showed superior anti-inflammatory activity to ML161 in a qPCR assay measuring the expression of tissue factor in response to the cytokine TNF-alpha in endothelial cells. Additionally, NRD-21 is much more plasma stable than ML161, and is a promising lead compound for the parmodulin class for anti-thrombotic and anti-inflammatory indications.

Evaluation of α-hydroxycinnamic acids as pyruvate carboxylase inhibitors.

Through a structure-based drug design project (SBDD), potent small molecule inhibitors of pyruvate carboxylase (PC) have been discovered. A series of α-keto acids (7) and α-hydroxycinnamic acids (8) were prepared and evaluated for inhibition of PC in two assays. The two most potent inhibitors were 3,3'-(1,4-phenylene)bis[2-hydroxy-2-propenoic acid] (8u) and 2-hydroxy-3-(quinoline-2-yl)propenoic acid (8v) with IC50 values of 3.0 ±â€¯1.0 µM and 4.3 ±â€¯1.5 µM respectively. Compound 8v is a competitive inhibitor with respect to pyruvate (Ki = 0.74 µM) and a mixed-type inhibitor with respect to ATP, indicating that it targets the unique carboxyltransferase (CT) domain of PC. Furthermore, compound 8v does not significantly inhibit human carbonic anhydrase II, matrix metalloproteinase-2, malate dehydrogenase or lactate dehydrogenase.

Synthesis of Simplified Azasordarin Analogs as Potential Antifungal Agents.

A new series of simplified azasordarin analogs was synthesized using as key steps a Diels-Alder reaction to generate a highly substituted bicyclo[2.2.1]heptane core, followed by a subsequent nitrile alkylation. Several additional strategies were investigated for the generation of the key tertiary nitrile or aldehyde thought to be required for inhibition at the fungal protein eukaryotic elongation factor 2. This new series also features a morpholino glycone previously reported in semisynthetic sordarin derivatives with broad spectrum antifungal activity. Despite a lack of activity against Candida albicans for these early de novo analogs, the synthetic route reported here permits more comprehensive modifications of the bicyclic core and structure-activity relationship studies that were not heretofore possible.

Design and Evaluation of Heterobivalent PAR1-PAR2 Ligands as Antagonists of Calcium Mobilization.

A novel class of bivalent ligands targeting putative protease-activated receptor (PAR) heteromers has been prepared based upon reported antagonists for the subtypes PAR1 and PAR2. Modified versions of the PAR1 antagonist RWJ-58259 containing alkyne adapters were connected via cycloaddition reactions to azide-capped polyethylene glycol (PEG) spacers attached to imidazopyridazine-based PAR2 antagonists. Initial studies of the PAR1-PAR2 antagonists indicated that they inhibited G alpha q-mediated calcium mobilization in endothelial and cancer cells driven by both PAR1 and PAR2 agonists. Compounds of this novel class hold promise for the prevention of restenosis, cancer cell metastasis, and other proliferative disorders.

Synthetic Analogues of the Snail Toxin 6-Bromo-2-mercaptotryptamine Dimer (BrMT) Reveal That Lipid Bilayer Perturbation Does Not Underlie Its Modulation of Voltage-Gated Potassium Channels.

Drugs do not act solely by canonical ligand-receptor binding interactions. Amphiphilic drugs partition into membranes, thereby perturbing bulk lipid bilayer properties and possibly altering the function of membrane proteins. Distinguishing membrane perturbation from more direct protein-ligand interactions is an ongoing challenge in chemical biology. Herein, we present one strategy for doing so, using dimeric 6-bromo-2-mercaptotryptamine (BrMT) and synthetic analogues. BrMT is a chemically unstable marine snail toxin that has unique effects on voltage-gated K+ channel proteins, making it an attractive medicinal chemistry lead. BrMT is amphiphilic and perturbs lipid bilayers, raising the question of whether its action against K+ channels is merely a manifestation of membrane perturbation. To determine whether medicinal chemistry approaches to improve BrMT might be viable, we synthesized BrMT and 11 analogues and determined their activities in parallel assays measuring K+ channel activity and lipid bilayer properties. Structure-activity relationships were determined for modulation of the Kv1.4 channel, bilayer partitioning, and bilayer perturbation. Neither membrane partitioning nor bilayer perturbation correlates with K+ channel modulation. We conclude that BrMT's membrane interactions are not critical for its inhibition of Kv1.4 activation. Further, we found that alkyl or ether linkages can replace the chemically labile disulfide bond in the BrMT pharmacophore, and we identified additional regions of the scaffold that are amenable to chemical modification. Our work demonstrates a strategy for determining if drugs act by specific interactions or bilayer-dependent mechanisms, and chemically stable modulators of Kv1 channels are reported.

Characterization of Protease-Activated Receptor (PAR) ligands: Parmodulins are reversible allosteric inhibitors of PAR1-driven calcium mobilization in endothelial cells.

Several classes of ligands for Protease-Activated Receptors (PARs) have shown impressive anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective activities, including PAR2 antagonists and the PAR1-targeting parmodulins. In order to support medicinal chemistry studies with hundreds of compounds and to perform detailed mode-of-action studies, it became important to develop a reliable PAR assay that is operational with endothelial cells, which mediate the cytoprotective effects of interest. We report a detailed protocol for an intracellular calcium mobilization assay with adherent endothelial cells in multiwell plates that was used to study a number of known and new PAR1 and PAR2 ligands, including an alkynylated version of the PAR1 antagonist RWJ-58259 that is suitable for the preparation of tagged or conjugate compounds. Using the cell line EA.hy926, it was necessary to perform media exchanges with automated liquid handling equipment in order to obtain optimal and reproducible antagonist concentration-response curves. The assay is also suitable for study of PAR2 ligands; a peptide antagonist reported by Fairlie was synthesized and found to inhibit PAR2 in a manner consistent with reports using epithelial cells. The assay was used to confirm that vorapaxar acts as an irreversible antagonist of PAR1 in endothelium, and parmodulin 2 (ML161) and the related parmodulin RR-90 were found to inhibit PAR1 reversibly, in a manner consistent with negative allosteric modulation.

PAR1 agonists stimulate APC-like endothelial cytoprotection and confer resistance to thromboinflammatory injury.

Stimulation of protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1) on endothelium by activated protein C (APC) is protective in several animal models of disease, and APC has been used clinically in severe sepsis and wound healing. Clinical use of APC, however, is limited by its immunogenicity and its anticoagulant activity. We show that a class of small molecules termed "parmodulins" that act at the cytosolic face of PAR1 stimulates APC-like cytoprotective signaling in endothelium. Parmodulins block thrombin generation in response to inflammatory mediators and inhibit platelet accumulation on endothelium cultured under flow. Evaluation of the antithrombotic mechanism showed that parmodulins induce cytoprotective signaling through Gßγ, activating a PI3K/Akt pathway and eliciting a genetic program that includes suppression of NF-κB-mediated transcriptional activation and up-regulation of select cytoprotective transcripts. STC1 is among the up-regulated transcripts, and knockdown of stanniocalin-1 blocks the protective effects of both parmodulins and APC. Induction of this signaling pathway in vivo protects against thromboinflammatory injury in blood vessels. Small-molecule activation of endothelial cytoprotection through PAR1 represents an approach for treatment of thromboinflammatory disease and provides proof-of-principle for the strategy of targeting the cytoplasmic surface of GPCRs to achieve pathway selective signaling.

Monitoring Replication Protein A (RPA) dynamics in homologous recombination through site-specific incorporation of non-canonical amino acids.

An essential coordinator of all DNA metabolic processes is Replication Protein A (RPA). RPA orchestrates these processes by binding to single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and interacting with several other DNA binding proteins. Determining the real-time kinetics of single players such as RPA in the presence of multiple DNA processors to better understand the associated mechanistic events is technically challenging. To overcome this hurdle, we utilized non-canonical amino acids and bio-orthogonal chemistry to site-specifically incorporate a chemical fluorophore onto a single subunit of heterotrimeric RPA. Upon binding to ssDNA, this fluorescent RPA (RPAf) generates a quantifiable change in fluorescence, thus serving as a reporter of its dynamics on DNA in the presence of multiple other DNA binding proteins. Using RPAf, we describe the kinetics of facilitated self-exchange and exchange by Rad51 and mediator proteins during various stages in homologous recombination. RPAf is widely applicable to investigate its mechanism of action in processes such as DNA replication, repair and telomere maintenance.

Cytoprotective activated protein C averts Nlrp3 inflammasome-induced ischemia-reperfusion injury via mTORC1 inhibition.

Cytoprotection by activated protein C (aPC) after ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is associated with apoptosis inhibition. However, IRI is hallmarked by inflammation, and hence, cell-death forms disjunct from immunologically silent apoptosis are, in theory, more likely to be relevant. Because pyroptosis (ie, cell death resulting from inflammasome activation) is typically observed in IRI, we speculated that aPC ameliorates IRI by inhibiting inflammasome activation. Here we analyzed the impact of aPC on inflammasome activity in myocardial and renal IRIs. aPC treatment before or after myocardial IRI reduced infarct size and Nlrp3 inflammasome activation in mice. Kinetic in vivo analyses revealed that Nlrp3 inflammasome activation preceded myocardial injury and apoptosis, corroborating a pathogenic role of the Nlrp3 inflammasome. The constitutively active Nlrp3A350V mutation abolished the protective effect of aPC, demonstrating that Nlrp3 suppression is required for aPC-mediated protection from IRI. In vitro aPC inhibited inflammasome activation in macrophages, cardiomyocytes, and cardiac fibroblasts via proteinase-activated receptor 1 (PAR-1) and mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling. Accordingly, inhibiting PAR-1 signaling, but not the anticoagulant properties of aPC, abolished the ability of aPC to restrict Nlrp3 inflammasome activity and tissue damage in myocardial IRI. Targeting biased PAR-1 signaling via parmodulin-2 restricted mTORC1 and Nlrp3 inflammasome activation and limited myocardial IRI as efficiently as aPC. The relevance of aPC-mediated Nlrp3 inflammasome suppression after IRI was corroborated in renal IRI, where the tissue protective effect of aPC was likewise dependent on Nlrp3 inflammasome suppression. These studies reveal that aPC protects from IRI by restricting mTORC1-dependent inflammasome activation and that mimicking biased aPC PAR-1 signaling using parmodulins may be a feasible therapeutic approach to combat IRI.