Tetraspanin CD9 and ectonucleotidase CD73 identify an osteochondroprogenitor population with elevated osteogenic properties.

Cell-based bone regeneration strategies offer promise for traumatic bone injuries, congenital defects, non-union fractures and other skeletal pathologies. Postnatal bone remodeling and fracture healing provide evidence that an osteochondroprogenitor cell is present in adult life that can differentiate to remodel or repair the fractured bone. However, cell-based skeletal repair in the clinic is still in its infancy, mostly due to poor characterization of progenitor cells and lack of knowledge about their in vivo behavior. Here, we took a combined approach of high-throughput screening, flow-based cell sorting and in vivo transplantation to isolate markers that identify osteochondroprogenitor cells. We show that the presence of tetraspanin CD9 enriches for osteochondroprogenitors within CD105(+) mesenchymal cells and that these cells readily form bone upon transplantation. In addition, we have used Thy1.2 and the ectonucleotidase CD73 to identify subsets within the CD9(+) population that lead to endochondral or intramembranous-like bone formation. Utilization of this unique cell surface phenotype to enrich for osteochondroprogenitor cells will allow for further characterization of the molecular mechanisms that regulate their osteogenic properties.

TLR2 and TLR4 mediate the TNFα response to Vibrio vulnificus biotype 1.

Vibrio vulnificus (Vv) is a pathogenic bacterium that can cause life-threatening infections in humans. Most fatal cases are due to septic shock that results from dysregulation of cytokines, particularly TNFα, which plays a critical role in the outcome of Vv infection. The goal of this study was to investigate the Toll-like receptor (TLR)-mediated TNFα response to four Vv biotype 1 strains using mice deficient for TLR2, TLR4, and TLR2/TLR4. Ex vivo assays were performed with blood, splenocytes, and Kupffer cells (KC) from wild-type (WT) and TLR-knockout (KO) mice using formalin-inactivated Vv (f-Vv) as stimulant. All f-Vv biotype 1 strains elicited strong TNFα production by WT mouse blood and cells, which was TLR2 and TLR4 dependent. OxPAPC, an inhibitor of TLR2 and TLR4 signaling, effectively blunted the TLR-mediated TNFα response to f-Vv. Furthermore, TLR2 KO and TLR2/TLR4 KO mice were more resistant to lethal infection with Vv ATCC 27562 than WT mice, perhaps due to attenuation of the TNFα response. These data suggest that it may be possible to devise strategies to specifically target the harmful TLR-mediated TNFα response as an adjunct to antibiotic treatment of severe Vv infection.

A synthetic lymph node containing inactivated Treponema pallidum cells elicits strong, antigen-specific humoral and cellular immune responses in mice.

The goal of this study was to investigate the use of a synthetic lymph node (SLN) for delivery of Treponema pallidum (Tp) antigens. Immune responses of C57BL/6 mice were analyzed at 4, 8, and 12 weeks after SLN implantation. Group 1 mice received SLN with no antigen; Group 2, SLN with formalin-inactivated Tp (f-Tp); and Group 3, SLN with f-Tp plus a CpG oligodeoxynucleotide. When tested by ELISA, sera from Group 2 and Group 3 mice showed stronger IgG antibody reactivity than sera from Group 1 mice to sonicates of f-Tp or untreated Tp, but not to sonicate of normal rabbit testicular extract at all times. The IgG1 level was higher than IgG2c level for Group 2 mice at all times and for Group 3 mice at 4 and 8 weeks. IgG1 and IgG2c levels were nearly equivalent for Group 3 mice at 12 weeks. Immunoblotting showed that IgG from Group 2 and Group 3 mice recognized several Tp proteins at all times. Supernatants of splenocytes from Group 2 and Group 3 mice contained significantly more IFNγ than those from Group 1 mice after stimulation with f-Tp at all times. A significant level of IL-4 was not detected in any supernatants. These data show that strong humoral and cellular immune responses to Tp can be elicited via a SLN.

Administration of BMP2/7 in utero partially reverses Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome-like skeletal defects induced by Pdk1 or Cbp mutations in mice.

Mutations in the coactivator CREB-binding protein (CBP) are a major cause of the human skeletal dysplasia Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome (RTS); however, the mechanism by which these mutations affect skeletal mineralization and patterning is unknown. Here, we report the identification of 3-phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 (PDK1) as a key regulator of CBP activity and demonstrate that its functions map to both osteoprogenitor cells and mature osteoblasts. In osteoblasts, PDK1 activated the CREB/CBP complex, which in turn controlled runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) activation and expression of bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2). These pathways also operated in vivo, as evidenced by recapitulation of RTS spectrum phenotypes with osteoblast-specific Pdk1 deletion in mice (Pdk1osx mice) and by the genetic interactions observed in mice heterozygous for both osteoblast-specific Pdk1 deletion and either Runx2 or Creb deletion. Finally, treatment of Pdk1osx and Cbp+/- embryos with BMPs in utero partially reversed their skeletal anomalies at birth. These findings illustrate the in vivo function of the PDK1-AKT-CREB/CBP pathway in bone formation and provide proof of principle for in utero growth factor supplementation as a potential therapy for skeletal dysplasias.

Cdh1 regulates osteoblast function through an APC/C-independent modulation of Smurf1.

The APC/Cdh1 E3 ubiquitin ligase plays an essential role in both mitotic exit and G1/S transition by targeting key cell-cycle regulators for destruction. There is mounting evidence indicating that Cdh1 has other functions in addition to cell-cycle regulation. However, it remains unclear whether these additional functions depend on its E3 ligase activity. Here, we report that Cdh1, but not Cdc20, promotes the E3 ligase activity of Smurf1. This is mediated by disruption of an autoinhibitory Smurf1 homodimer and is independent of APC/Cdh1 E3 ligase activity. As a result, depletion of Cdh1 leads to reduced Smurf1 activity and subsequent activation of multiple downstream targets, including the MEKK2 signaling pathway, inducing osteoblast differentiation. Our studies uncover a cell-cycle-independent function of Cdh1, establishing Cdh1 as an upstream component that governs Smurf1 activity. They further suggest that modulation of Cdh1 is a potential therapeutic option for treatment of osteoporosis.

The E3 ubiquitin ligase Wwp2 regulates craniofacial development through mono-ubiquitylation of Goosecoid.

Craniofacial anomalies (CFAs) are the most frequently occurring human congenital disease, and a major cause of infant mortality and childhood morbidity. Although CFAs seems to arise from a combination of genetic factors and environmental influences, the underlying gene defects and pathophysiological mechanisms for most CFAs are currently unknown. Here we reveal a role for the E3 ubiquitin ligase Wwp2 in regulating craniofacial patterning. Mice deficient in Wwp2 develop malformations of the craniofacial region. Wwp2 is present in cartilage where its expression is controlled by Sox9. Our studies demonstrate that Wwp2 influences craniofacial patterning through its interactions with Goosecoid (Gsc), a paired-like homeobox transcription factor that has an important role in craniofacial development. We show that Wwp2-associated Gsc is a transcriptional activator of the key cartilage regulatory protein Sox6. Wwp2 interacts with Gsc to facilitate its mono-ubiquitylation, a post-translational modification required for optimal transcriptional activation of Gsc. Our results identify for the first time a physiological pathway regulated by Wwp2 in vivo, and also a unique non-proteolytic mechanism through which Wwp2 controls craniofacial development.

TRPV4-dependent dilation of peripheral resistance arteries influences arterial pressure.

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) channels have been implicated as mediators of calcium influx in both endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cells and are potentially important modulators of vascular tone. However, very little is known about the functional roles of TRPV4 in the resistance vasculature or how these channels influence hemodynamic properties. In the present study, we examined arterial vasomotor activity in vitro and recorded blood pressure dynamics in vivo using TRPV4 knockout (KO) mice. Acetylcholine-induced hyperpolarization and vasodilation were reduced by approximately 75% in mesenteric resistance arteries from TRPV4 KO versus wild-type (WT) mice. Furthermore, 11,12-epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (EET), a putative endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor, activated a TRPV4-like cation current and hyperpolarized the membrane of vascular smooth muscle cells, resulting in the dilation of mesenteric arteries from WT mice. In contrast, 11,12-EET had no effect on membrane potential, diameter, or ionic currents in the mesenteric arteries from TRPV4 KO mice. A disruption of the endothelium reduced 11,12-EET-induced hyperpolarization and vasodilatation by approximately 50%. A similar inhibition of these responses was observed following the block of endothelial (small and intermediate conductance) or smooth muscle (large conductance) K(+) channels, suggesting a link between 11,12-EET activity, TRPV4, and K(+) channels in endothelial and smooth muscle cells. Finally, we found that hypertension induced by the inhibition of nitric oxide synthase was greater in TRPV4 KO compared with WT mice. These results support the conclusion that both endothelial and smooth muscle TRPV4 channels are critically involved in the vasodilation of mesenteric arteries in response to endothelial-derived factors and suggest that in vivo this mechanism opposes the effects of hypertensive stimuli.