Accuracy of the American College of Surgeons Minimum Criteria for Full Trauma Team Activation for Children.

OBJECTIVE: Pediatric trauma centers use reports from emergency medical service providers to determine if a trauma team should be sent to the emergency department to prepare to care for the patient. Little scientific evidence supports the current American College of Surgeons (ACS) indicators for trauma team activation. The objective of this study was to determine the accuracy of the ACS Minimum Criteria for Full Trauma Team Activation for children as well as the accuracy of the modified criteria used at the local sites for trauma activation. METHODS: Emergency medical service providers who transported an injured child aged 15 years or younger to a pediatric trauma center in 1 of 3 cities were interviewed after emergency department arrival. Emergency medical service providers were asked if each of the activation indicators were present based on their evaluation. The need for full trauma team activation was determined through a medical record review using a published criterion standard definition. Undertriage and overtriage rates and positive likelihood ratios (+LRs) were calculated. RESULTS: Emergency medical service provider interviews were conducted and outcome data were obtained for 9483 children. There were 202 (2.1%) cases that met the criterion standard for need for trauma team activation. Based on the ACS Minimum Criteria, 299 (3.0%) cases should have received a trauma activation. The ACS Minimum Criteria undertriaged 44.1% and overtriaged 20% (+LR, 27.9; 95% confidence interval, 23.1-33.7). Based on the actual activation status using the local criteria, 238 cases received a full trauma activation, 45% were undertriaged, and 1.4% were overtriaged (+LR, 40.1; 95% confidence interval, 32.4-49.7). There was 97% agreement between the ACS Minimum Criteria and the actual local activation status at the receiving institution. CONCLUSIONS: The ACS Minimum Criteria for Full Trauma Team Activation for children have a high rate of undertriage. Changes that individual institutions have made to improve the accuracy of activations at their institutions seem to have had a limited effect on decreasing undertriage.

Effects of pharmacogenetic profiles on pediatric pain relief and adverse events with ibuprofen and oxycodone.

Introduction: Individual genetic variation may influence clinical effects for pain medications. Effects of CYP2C9, CYP3A4, and CYP2D6 polymorphisms on clinical effectiveness and safety for ibuprofen and oxycodone were studied. Objective: Primary objectives were to AU2 evaluate if allelic variations would affect clinical effectiveness and adverse events (AEs) occurrence. Methods: This pragmatic prospective, observational cohort included children aged 4 to 16 years who were seen in a pediatric emergency department with an acute fracture and prescribed ibuprofen or oxycodone for at-home pain management. Saliva samples were obtained for genotyping of allelic variants, and daily telephone follow-up was conducted for 3 days. Pain was measured using the Faces Pain Scale-Revised. Results: We included 210 children (n = 140 ibuprofen and n = 70 oxycodone); mean age was 11.1 (±SD 3.5) years, 33.8% were female. Median pain reduction on day 1 was similar between groups [ibuprofen 4 (IQR 2,4) and oxycodone 4 (IQR 2,6), P = 0.69]. Over the 3 days, the oxycodone group experienced more AE than the ibuprofen group (78.3% vs 53.2%, P < 0.001). Those with a CYP2C9*2 reduced function allele experienced less adverse events with ibuprofen compared with those with a normal functioning allele CYP2C9*1 (P = 0.003). Neither CYP3A4 variants nor CYP2D6 phenotype classification affected clinical effect or AE. Conclusion: Although pain relief was similar, children receiving oxycodone experienced more AE, overall, than those receiving ibuprofen. For children receiving ibuprofen or oxycodone, pain relief was not affected by genetic variations in CYP2C9 or CYP3A4/CYP2D6, respectively. For children receiving ibuprofen, the presence of CYP2C9*2 was associated with less adverse events.

Adolescent and Caregiver Perspectives on Living With a Limb Fracture: A Qualitative Study.

BACKGROUND: Fractures occur in up to half of children by age 16 years. After initial emergency care for a fracture, function is universally impaired in children, and impacts extend to the immediate family. Knowledge of expected functional limitations is key to providing proper discharge instructions and anticipatory guidance to families. OBJECTIVES: The primary objective of this study was to understand how changes in functional ability impact youth with fractures. METHODS: We conducted individual, semistructured interviews from June 2019 to November 2020 with adolescents and their caregivers 7 to 14 days following their initial visit to a pediatric emergency department. We used qualitative content analysis methodology; recruitment proceeded until thematic saturation was achieved. Coding and analysis were concurrent with recruitment and interviews. The interview script was modified in an iterative process, to reflect emerging themes. RESULTS: Twenty-nine interviews were completed. The most frequently affected functions were ( a ) showering and hygiene (requiring the most caregiver support), ( b ) sleep (due to pain and cast-related discomfort), and ( c ) exclusion from sports/activities. Many adolescents experienced disruptions to social activities and gatherings. Youth valued independence and took more time to complete tasks, regardless of inconvenience. Both adolescents and caregivers reported feelings of frustration from day-to-day impacts of the injury. Generally, caregivers' perspectives were in keeping with the experiences that adolescents described for themselves. Notable family impacts included "sibling burden," or conflicts that arose when a sibling had to take on extra chores/tasks. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, caregivers' perspectives were congruent with the self-described experiences of adolescents. Key messages for optimized discharge instructions include pain and sleep management, allowing extra time to complete tasks independently, considering impact on siblings, preparing for changes in activities and social dynamics, and normalizing frustration. These themes highlight an opportunity to better tailor discharge instructions for adolescents with fractures.

Responsible and safe use of opioids in children and adolescents in the emergency department.

Untreated pain in childhood may have ramifications well into adulthood. Opioid medications have an important role in care for moderate to severe pain that cannot be relieved by first-line interventions, but clinicians must approach opioid use in the emergency department in an evidence-based, socially responsible manner. This issue reviews evidence-based approaches to with a focus on optimizing nonopioid pain management as a first approach and using opioid medications safely, when appropriate. Recommendations are provided for safer opioid prescribing, including assessment of risk factors for opioid misuse, careful family counseling and education, and suggested prescribing limits. Prescription and use of naloxone in the emergency department and as take-home kits are also discussed.

Utilizing Near-Infrared Spectroscopy to Identify Pediatric Trauma Patients Needing Lifesaving Interventions: A Prospective Study.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to prospectively investigate the role of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in identifying pediatric trauma patients who required lifesaving interventions (LSIs). METHODS: Prospective cohort study of children age 0 to 18 years who activated the trauma team response between August 15, 2017, and February 12, 2019, at a large, urban pediatric emergency department (ED).The relationship between the lowest somatic NIRS saturation and the need for LSIs (based on published consensus definition) was investigated. Categorical variables were analyzed by χ 2 test, and continuous variables were analyzed by Student t test. RESULTS: A total of 148 pediatric trauma patients had somatic NIRS monitoring and met the inclusion criteria. Overall, 65.5% were male with a mean ± SD age of 10.9 ± 6.0 years. Injuries included 67.6% blunt trauma and 28.4% penetrating trauma with mortality of 3.4% (n = 5). Overall, the median lowest somatic NIRS value was 72% (interquartile range, 58%-88%; range, 15%-95%), and 43.9% of patients had a somatic NIRS value <70%. The median somatic NIRS duration recorded was 11 minutes (interquartile range, 7-17 minutes; range, 1-105 minutes). Overall, 36.5% of patients required a LSI including 53 who required a lifesaving procedure, 17 required blood products, and 17 required vasopressors. Among procedures, requiring a thoracostomy was significant.Pediatric trauma patients with a somatic NIRS value <70% had a significantly increased odds of requiring a LSI (odds ratio, 2.11; 95% confidence interval, 1.07-4.20). Somatic NIRS values <70% had a sensitivity and specificity of 56% and 63%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric trauma patients with somatic NIRS values <70% within 30 minutes of ED arrival have an increased odds of requiring LSIs. Among LSIs, pediatric trauma patients requiring thoracostomy was significant. The role of NIRS in incrementally improving the identification of critically injured children in the ED and prehospital setting should be evaluated in larger prospective multicenter studies.

Quantifying the intensity of adverse events with ibuprofen and oxycodone: an observational cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To quantify the frequency and intensity of adverse events (AEs), commonly known as side effects, experienced by children receiving either ibuprofen or oxycodone for pain management following an acute fracture. Secondary objectives were to quantify functional outcome impairment and describe demographic and clinical characteristics associated with AEs. DESIGN: Observational cohort study. SETTING: Paediatric emergency department. PATIENTS: Patients (n=240) aged 4-16 years diagnosed with an acute fracture. INTERVENTION: Prescribed either ibuprofen (n=179) or oxycodone (n=61) for pain. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Families were called for the first 3 days after discharge to report the presence and intensity of AEs and their child's functional outcomes (ability to eat, sleep, play or attend school). RESULTS: On day 1, children using oxycodone were more likely to report any AE (χ2 1=13.5, p<0.001), nausea (χ2 1=17.0, p<0.001), vomiting (χ2 1=11.2, p<0.001), drowsiness (χ2 1=13.7,p<0.001), constipation (χ2 1=8.9, p=0.003) and dizziness (χ2 1=19.1, p<0.001), compared with those using ibuprofen. Children receiving oxycodone reported greater severity of abdominal pain (oxycodone: mean 5.4 SD 3.1; ibuprofen mean 2.5 SD 1.4, F1 13=6.5, p=0.02) on day 1 and worse intensity of constipation (oxycodone: mean 4.9 SD 2.1; ibuprofen mean 3.2 SD 2.2, F1 33=4.5, p=0.04) over all 3 days. Use of oxycodone was associated with an increased odds of experiencing an AE on day 1 (OR=1.31 (95% CI 1.13 to 1.52)). Higher pain scores (OR=1.50 (95% CI 1.12 to 2.01)), lower extremity fracture (OR=1.25 (95% CI 1.07 to 1.47)) and undergoing ED sedation (OR=1.16 (95% CI 1.01 to 1.34)) were associated with missing school. Higher pain scores (OR=1.50 (95% CI 1.14 to 1.97)) and lower extremity fractures (OR=1.23 (95% CI 1.07 to 1.43)) were also associated with less play. CONCLUSIONS: Oxycodone is associated with more frequent AEs overall, higher intensity gastrointestinal AEs and greater functional limitations compared with ibuprofen. Lower extremity fractures cause more functional limitations than upper extremity fractures. Clinicians should consider these differences when providing fracture pain care for children.

Racial Disparities in the Emergency Department Evaluation of Adolescent Girls.

OBJECTIVE: Racial disparities and differences exist in emergency care. Obtaining a sexual history is standard of care for adolescents with abdominal pain. Testing for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and pregnancy should be based on historical findings. The objective of this study was to determine whether differential care was provided to adolescent female patients with abdominal pain based on patient race or healthcare provider characteristics by evaluating the documentation of sexual history, STI testing, and pregnancy testing. METHODS: This was a retrospective chart review of female patients between the ages of 14 and 18 years with abdominal pain presenting to a pediatric emergency department. Patient and provider characteristics, sexual history documentation, STI, and pregnancy testing were abstracted. Data were analyzed using χ 2 test and logistic regression model. RESULTS: Eight hundred eighty-six encounters were included in the analysis. Median patient age was 16 years (range, 14-18 years); 359 (40.5%) were non-White. Differential care was provided. Non-White patients compared with White patients were more likely to have a documented sexual history (59.9% vs 44.0%, P < 0.001), STI testing (24.8% vs 7.8%, P < 0.001), and pregnancy testing (76.6% vs 66.2%, P < 0.001). Among sexually active female patients, the racial disparity for STI testing persisted ( P = 0.010). Provider type and sex did not result in differences in sexual history documentation, STI, or pregnancy testing for non-White compared with White patients ( P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Differential care was provided to non-White adolescents with abdominal pain compared with White adolescents. They were more likely to have a documented sexual history, STI testing, and pregnancy testing. Healthcare provider characteristics did not impact patient care. This racial disparity resulted in better medical care for non-White adolescents, but this may be the consequence of underlying implicit bias.

Parental Perspectives on Children's Functional Experiences After Limb Fracture: A Qualitative Study.

BACKGROUND: Fractures are a common childhood injury. Although the pain associated with fractures is well described, the related functional impact is less understood. When a child's function is impaired, his or her ability to participate in day-to-day life is restricted. Eighty percent of children with fractures experience compromise in daily function. An in-depth understanding of function can guide emergency department (ED) providers' discharge instructions. OBJECTIVES: Our aim was to report caregivers' perspectives of the functional impact of limb fractures on their children's day-to-day life activities. METHODS: We performed a qualitative study using interviews of caregivers of children (aged 5 to 11 years) who received care for acute, nonoperative long bone fractures in a pediatric ED. Audio-recorded, semistructured telephone interviews were completed 7 to 14 days after the ED visit. Interviews were primarily open ended, including questions targeting areas of function from existing pediatric fracture literature. Qualitative analysis was completed using content analysis. RESULTS: Twenty-five interviews were included in the final analysis. Most of the children were diagnosed with upper extremity fractures, and most participants were mothers. All parents reported a change in their child's function. The most commonly affected areas were sleep, activities of daily living, and play. Play was either self-limited by the child or restricted by the parent. Pain was worse in the first days after discharge. Many children struggled emotionally with functional limitations. All children required help from their parents to perform daily tasks; this required adaptive strategies such as planning, changes to household routine, and missed work. Key concerns from parents included regression in the child's independence and fracture healing and complications. CONCLUSIONS: Function is universally impaired in young children with fractures, significantly affecting family life after discharge. Discharge conversations with families should include pain management, changes to activities of daily living, family routines and play, and expectations for fracture healing.

Video Education Intervention in the Emergency Department.

INTRODUCTION: After discharge from the emergency department (ED), pain management challenges parents, who have been shown to undertreat their children's pain. Our goal was to evaluate the effectiveness of a five-minute instructional video for parents on pain treatment in the home setting to address common misconceptions about home pediatric pain management. METHODS: We conducted a randomized, single-blinded clinical trial of parents of children ages 1-18 years who presented with a painful condition, were evaluated, and were discharged home from a large, tertiary care pediatric ED. Parents were randomized to a pain management intervention video or an injury prevention control video. The primary outcome was the proportion of parents that gave their child pain medication at home after discharge. These data were recorded in a home pain diary and analyzed using the chi square test to determine significant difference. Parents' knowledge about components of at-home pain treatment were tested before, immediately following, and two days after intervention. We used McNemar's test statistic to compare incorrect pretest/correct post-test answers between intervention and control groups. RESULTS: A total of 100 parents were enrolled: 59 parents watched the pain education video, and 41 the control video. Overall, 75% of parents completed follow-up, providing information about home medication use. Significantly more parents provided pain medication to their children after watching the educational video: 96% vs 80% (difference 16%; 95% CI 7.8-31.3%). Significantly more parents had correct pain treatment knowledge immediately following the educational video about pain scores (P = 0.04); the positive effects of analgesics (P <0.01); and pain medication misconceptions (P = 0.02). Most differences in knowledge remained two days after the video intervention. CONCLUSION: The five-minute educational video about home pain treatment viewed by parents in the ED prior to discharge significantly increased the proportion of children receiving pain medication at home as well as parents' knowledge about at-home pain management.

Utilizing Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) to Identify Pediatric Trauma Patients Needing Lifesaving Interventions (LSIs): A Retrospective Study.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate the role of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in identifying pediatric trauma patients who required lifesaving interventions (LSIs). METHODS: Retrospective chart review of children age 0 to 18 years who activated the trauma team response between January 1, 2015 and August 14, 2017, at a large, urban pediatric emergency department. The lowest somatic NIRS saturation and the need for LSIs (based on published consensus definition) were abstracted from the chart. χ2 and descriptive statistics were used for analysis. RESULTS: The charts of 84 pediatric trauma patients were reviewed. Overall, 80% were boys with a mean age of 10.4 years (SD, 6.2 years). Injuries included 56% blunt trauma and 36% penetrating trauma with mortality of 10.7% (n = 9). Overall, the median lowest NIRS value was 67% (interquartile range, 51-80%; range, 15%-95%) and 54.8% of the patients had a NIRS value less than 70%. The median somatic NIRS duration recorded was 12 minutes (interquartile range, 6-17 minutes; range, 1-59 minutes). Overall, 50% of patients required a LSI, including 39 who required a lifesaving procedure, 11 required blood products, and 14 required vasopressors. Pediatric trauma patients with NIRS less than 70% had a significantly increased odds of requiring a LSI (odds ratio, 2.67; 95% confidence interval, 1.10-6.47). NIRS less than 70% had a sensitivity and specificity of 67% and 57% respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric trauma patients with somatic NIRS less than 70% within 30 minutes of emergency department arrival are associated with the need for LSIs. Continuous NIRS monitoring in the pediatric trauma population should be evaluated prospectively.

Quality Improvement Project to Improve the Timeliness of Care for Children With Testicular Torsion in the Emergency Department.

Introduction: Testicular torsion (TT) is a urologic emergency that requires timely diagnosis and surgery. We noted variation in the door-to-detorsion times for patients with TT at our institution and our orchiectomy rate was 25.8%. We aimed to decrease the mean door-to-detorsion time from 124.6 to 114.6 minutes or less over 12 months. Methods: A multidisciplinary team of pediatric emergency medicine, radiology, urology physicians, and nurses, was formed. Our key drivers were use of Testicular Workup for Ischemia and Suspected Torsion (TWIST) score, prompt urology consultation, and efficient transfer from emergency department (ED) to operating room. Our process measures were TWIST score documentation rate and early urology consultation rate, outcome measures were door-to-detorsion time and orchiectomy rate, and balancing measure was ultrasound utilization rate. Early urology consultation occurred when the ED provider documented telephone communication with urology, immediately after placing a testicular doppler ultrasound (TDUS) order and before TDUS result. Results: Over 2 years, 45 cases of TT were diagnosed. TWIST score documentation was implemented and was sustained at 78%. This improved early urology consultations from 40% to 60%. The mean door-to-detorsion time improved from 124.6 to 114.2 minutes. There was no reduction in the orchiectomy rate or TDUS utilization rate. Conclusions: A quality improvement project to improve the timeliness of care for children with TT resulted in expedited ED care but did not impact the orchiectomy rate.

An evaluation of short anxiety measures for use in the emergency department.

BACKGROUND: The emergency department (ED) is a stressful environment for children. Few studies assess pediatric anxiety in the ED. "Gold standard" for measuring state-anxiety, Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAI-C state), is lengthy and of limited use in this setting. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to evaluate agreement between STAI-C, Likert, and modified Yale Preoperative Anxiety Scale (m-YPAS) and determine if shorter measures may be adequate replacements for STAI-C in the ED. METHODS: This is a secondary analysis of data from a previous observational cohort study of a convenience sample of children 5-17 years old presenting to the ED. Anxiety was measured using STAI-C, Likert, and m-YPAS. Spearman correlations were used to evaluate agreement between STAI-C and the brief scales. A sub-analysis evaluated agreement between scales for children ≥9 years old to assess the impact of age. RESULTS: Eighty children were included. Median (IQR) STAI-C state score was 32.5 (30.0, 37.8). This represents moderate state anxiety with 30% of children exhibiting elevated state anxiety. Median (IQR) Likert score was 2.0 (1.0, 2.0). Correlation between the Likert and STAI-C was moderate (rs = 0.51; p < 0.0001). Median (IQR) m-YPAS was 28.3 (24.2, 33.3). The m-YPAS and STAI-C were unrelated (rs = 0.12; p > 0.05). For children ≥9 years old, correlation between Likert and STAI-C remained moderate (rs = 0.52; p < 0.0001); STAI-C and m-YPAS were unrelated (rs = 0.10; p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Children in the ED experienced moderate-elevated state anxiety. Likert scale may be an acceptable substitute for STAI-C state. Further studies of this scale will aid in identifying patients with anxiety to facilitate timely management.

An assessment of the psychometric properties of the Stoplight Pain Scale in a Canadian paediatric emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to validate a novel, three faced, colour-coded, action-oriented tool: The Stoplight Pain Scale (SPS). METHODS: A prospective observational cohort study was conducted at a Canadian paediatric emergency department from November 2014 to February 2017. Patients aged 3 to 12 years and their caregivers were asked to rate pain using the SPS and the Faces Pain Scale-Revised (FPS-R). Pain was measured just before analgesia administration, 30 minutes after analgesia administration, and immediately following a painful procedure. RESULTS: A total of 227 patients were included; 26.9% (61/227) were 3 to 5 years old while 73.1% (166/227) were 6 to 12 years old. Using Cohen's κ, agreement for SPS and FPS-R was 'fair' for children (0.28 [95% confidence interval {CI} 0.20 to 0.36]) and 'poor' for caregivers (0.14 [95% CI 0.07 to 0.21]), at initial measurement. The SPS had 'fair' agreement between child and caregiver scores, (0.37 [95% CI 0.27 to 0.47]), compared to FPS-R which showed 'poor' agreement (0.20 [95% CI 0.12 to 0.29]). Absolute agreement between child and caregiver SPS scores improved with repeat exposure; 30 minutes after analgesia administration, caregivers and children had fair agreement (κ=0.38, 95% CI 0.28 to 0.48); they had moderate agreement directly following painful procedures (κ=0.46, 95% CI 0.34 to 0.59). Overall, 72.4% (139/192) of children and 60.2% (118/196) of caregivers preferred SPS over FPS-R. CONCLUSION: The SPS demonstrates fair agreement with FPS-R for children and fair-moderate agreement between children and caregivers; agreement improved with repeat use. The SPS is simple and easy to use; it may have a role in empowering direct child and family involvement in pain management.

Nonmedical Opioid Use After Short-term Therapeutic Exposure in Children: A Systematic Review.

CONTEXT: Opioid-related harms continue to rise for children and youth. Analgesic prescribing decisions are challenging because the risk for future nonmedical opioid use or disorder is unclear. OBJECTIVE: To synthesize research examining the association between short-term therapeutic opioid exposure and future nonmedical opioid use or opioid use disorder and associated risk factors. DATA SOURCES: We searched 11 electronic databases. STUDY SELECTION: Two reviewers screened studies. Studies were included if: they were published in English or French, participants had short-term (≤14 days) or an unknown duration of therapeutic exposure to opioids before 18 years, and reported opioid use disorder or misuse. DATA EXTRACTION: Data were extracted, and methodologic quality was assessed by 2 reviewers. Data were summarized narratively. RESULTS: We included 21 observational studies (49 944 602 participants). One study demonstrated that short-term therapeutic exposure may be associated with opioid abuse; 4 showed an association between medical and nonmedical opioid use without specifying duration of exposure. Other studies reported on prevalence or incidence of nonmedical use after medical exposure to opioids. Risk factors were contradictory and remain unclear. LIMITATIONS: Most studies did not specify duration of exposure and were of low methodologic quality, and participants might not have been opioid naïve. CONCLUSIONS: Some studies suggest an association between lifetime therapeutic opioid use and nonmedical opioid use. Given the lack of clear evidence regarding short-term therapeutic exposure, health care providers should carefully evaluate pain management options and educate patients and caregivers about safe, judicious, and appropriate use of opioids and potential signs of misuse.

Utilization of heat-mapping tools to match a resident staffing template to emergency department arrival patterns.

OBJECTIVES: Academic emergency departments (ED) rely on a steady flow of patients to provide residents with good clinical training. Understanding institutional volume patterns allows training directors to create a schedule that maximizes learning opportunities while also adequately staffing the ED. Our primary objective of this study was to utilize heat-mapping software to optimize resident staffing in an academic ED. METHODS: Heat-mapping tools within Microsoft Excel were utilized to overlay ED patient arrival patterns on top of the potential patients per hour based on published productivity data for trainees and historical averages for advanced practice providers at our institution. Time frames for under- and overstaffing were identified and color-coded. This analysis informed a revised schedule template and the same heat-mapping process was used to determine the appropriateness of the revised staffing template. RESULTS: The heat map for the original schedule template revealed understaffing in the morning and overstaffing the rest of the day. Informed by these findings, schedule adjustments were made. There was no net increase in the number of resident or advanced practice provider coverage hours. Prior to implementation, the ED was understaffed by 5% or more during 18.4% of operating hours. Following changes to the staffing template, only 5.9% of operating hours were understaffed (p < 0.001). Furthermore, significant understaffing (20% or more) decreased from 16.6% to 3.1% (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Novel use of heat-mapping software has the potential to successfully match ED patient arrival patterns to an optimal resident staffing template. Future directions include incorporation of variable resident productivity to account for fatigue as the shift progresses.

An Evaluation of High Preprocedural Anxiety and Venipuncture Pain Experienced by Young Children.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine if young children with high preprocedural anxiety experience increased pain at venipuncture. METHODS: This was secondary analysis of prospectively obtained data from a randomized controlled trial comparing vapocoolant spray with jet-injected lidocaine for venipuncture pain. Children aged 1 to 6 years were enrolled and videotaped. Videos were reviewed and scored for anxiety using the modified Yale Preoperative Anxiety Scale score for preprocedural anxiety (score range, 23-100). High anxiety was defined as greater than 40. Pain at the time of venipuncture was scored using the Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, and Consolability scale (score range 0-10). Moderate to severe pain was defined as greater than 3. Logistic regression assessed patient factors associated with high preprocedural anxiety and evaluated the relationship between preprocedural anxiety and pain during venipuncture. RESULTS: Two hundred five patients were enrolled; 59.5% of patients were male, and 53.7% were White. Mean age was 3.2 years. Prior to the procedure, 67% of patients had high anxiety. Patient age, race, sex, and previous venipuncture were not associated with increased odds of high anxiety. Moderate to severe pain at venipuncture was observed in 65% of children. High preprocedural anxiety was associated with increased odds of moderate to severe pain at venipuncture when controlled for patient characteristics (adjusted odds ratio, 4.62; 95% confidence interval, 2.03-8.54). CONCLUSIONS: Most young children undergoing venipuncture experienced high preprocedural anxiety. Children with high preprocedural anxiety had increased odds of moderate to severe pain at venipuncture. Anxiety-reducing interventions should be explored to reduce pain experienced during venipuncture.