Casein kinase II-dependent phosphorylation of DNA topoisomerase II suppresses the effect of a catalytic topo II inhibitor, ICRF-193, in fission yeast.

DNA topoisomerase II (topo II) regulates the topological state of DNA and is necessary for DNA replication, transcription, and chromosome segregation. Topo II has essential functions in cell proliferation and therefore is a critical target of anticancer drugs. In this study, using Phos-tag SDS-PAGE analysis in fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe), we identified casein kinase II (Cka1/CKII)-dependent phosphorylation at the C-terminal residues Ser1363 and Ser1364 in topo II. We found that this phosphorylation decreases the inhibitory effect of an anticancer catalytic inhibitor of topo II, ICRF-193, on mitosis. Consistent with the constitutive activity of Cka1/CKII, Ser1363 and Ser1364 phosphorylation of topo II was stably maintained throughout the cell cycle. We demonstrate that ICRF-193-induced chromosomal mis-segregation is further exacerbated in two temperature-sensitive mutants, cka1-372 and cka1/orb5-19, of the catalytic subunit of CKII or in the topo II nonphosphorylatable alanine double mutant top2-S1363A,S1364A but not in cells of the phosphomimetic glutamate double mutant top2-S1363E,S1364E Our results suggest that Ser1363 and Ser1364 in topo II are targeted by Cka1/CKII kinase and that their phosphorylation facilitates topo II ATPase activity in the N-terminal region, which regulates protein turnover on chromosome DNA. Because CKII-mediated phosphorylation of the topo II C-terminal domain appears to be evolutionarily conserved, including in humans, we propose that attenuation of CKII-controlled topo II phosphorylation along with catalytic topo II inhibition may promote anticancer effects.

Genetic defects in SAPK signalling, chromatin regulation, vesicle transport and CoA-related lipid metabolism are rescued by rapamycin in fission yeast.

Rapamycin inhibits TOR (target of rapamycin) kinase, and is being used clinically to treat various diseases ranging from cancers to fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva. To understand rapamycin mechanisms of action more comprehensively, 1014 temperature-sensitive (ts) fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) mutants were screened in order to isolate strains in which the ts phenotype was rescued by rapamycin. Rapamycin-rescued 45 strains, among which 12 genes responsible for temperature sensitivity were identified. These genes are involved in stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK) signalling, chromatin regulation, vesicle transport, and CoA- and mevalonate-related lipid metabolism. Subsequent metabolome analyses revealed that rapamycin upregulated stress-responsive metabolites, while it downregulated purine biosynthesis intermediates and nucleotide derivatives. Rapamycin alleviated abnormalities in cell growth and cell division caused by sty1 mutants (Δsty1) of SAPK. Notably, in Δsty1, rapamycin reduced greater than 75% of overproduced metabolites (greater than 2× WT), like purine biosynthesis intermediates and nucleotide derivatives, to WT levels. This suggests that these compounds may be the points at which the SAPK/TOR balance regulates continuous cell proliferation. Rapamycin might be therapeutically useful for specific defects of these gene functions.

Metabolism of skin-absorbed resveratrol into its glucuronized form in mouse skin.

Resveratrol (RESV) is a plant polyphenol, which is thought to have beneficial metabolic effects in laboratory animals as well as in humans. Following oral administration, RESV is immediately catabolized, resulting in low bioavailability. This study compared RESV metabolites and their tissue distribution after oral uptake and skin absorption. Metabolomic analysis of various mouse tissues revealed that RESV can be absorbed and metabolized through skin. We detected sulfated and glucuronidated RESV metabolites, as well as dihydroresveratrol. These metabolites are thought to have lower pharmacological activity than RESV. Similar quantities of most RESV metabolites were observed 4 h after oral or skin administration, except that glucuronidated RESV metabolites were more abundant in skin after topical RESV application than after oral administration. This result is consistent with our finding of glucuronidated RESV metabolites in cultured skin cells. RESV applied to mouse ears significantly suppressed inflammation in the TPA inflammation model. The skin absorption route could be a complementary, potent way to achieve therapeutic effects with RESV.

ATPase-dependent auto-phosphorylation of the open condensin hinge diminishes DNA binding.

Condensin, which contains two structural maintenance of chromosome (SMC) subunits and three regulatory non-SMC subunits, is essential for many chromosomal functions, including mitotic chromosome condensation and segregation. The ATPase domain of the SMC subunit comprises two termini connected by a long helical domain that is interrupted by a central hinge. The role of the ATPase domain has remained elusive. Here we report that the condensin SMC subunit of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is phosphorylated in a manner that requires the presence of the intact SMC ATPase Walker motif. Principal phosphorylation sites reside in the conserved, glycine-rich stretch at the hinge interface surrounded by the highly basic DNA-binding patch. Phosphorylation reduces affinity for DNA. Consistently, phosphomimetic mutants produce severe mitotic phenotypes. Structural evidence suggests that prior opening (though slight) of the hinge is necessary for phosphorylation, which is implicated in condensin's dissociation from and its progression along DNA.

Unexpected similarities between the Schizosaccharomyces and human blood metabolomes, and novel human metabolites.

Metabolomics, a modern branch of chemical biology, provides qualitative and quantitative information about the metabolic states of organisms or cells at the molecular level. Here we report non-targeted, metabolomic analyses of human blood, using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). We compared the blood metabolome to the previously reported metabolome of the fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The two metabolomic datasets were highly similar: 101 of 133 compounds identified in human blood (75%) were also present in S. pombe, and 45 of 57 compounds enriched in red blood cells (RBCs) (78%) were also present in yeast. The most abundant metabolites were ATP, glutathione, and glutamine. Apart from these three, the next most abundant metabolites were also involved in energy metabolism, anti-oxidation, and amino acid metabolism. We identified fourteen new blood compounds, eight of which were enriched in RBCs: citramalate, GDP-glucose, trimethyl-histidine, trimethyl-phenylalanine, trimethyl-tryptophan, trimethyl-tyrosine, UDP-acetyl-glucosamine, UDP-glucuronate, dimethyl-lysine, glutamate methyl ester, N-acetyl-(iso)leucine, N-acetyl-glutamate, N2-acetyl-lysine, and N6-acetyl-lysine. Ten of the newly identified blood metabolites were also detected in S. pombe, and ten of the 14 newly identified blood metabolites were methylated or acetylated amino acids. Trimethylated or acetylated free amino acids were also abundant in white blood cells. It may be possible to investigate their physiological roles using yeast genetics.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe centromere protein Mis19 links Mis16 and Mis18 to recruit CENP-A through interacting with NMD factors and the SWI/SNF complex.

CENP-A is a centromere-specific variant of histone H3 that is required for accurate chromosome segregation. The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mammalian Mis16 and Mis18 form a complex essential for CENP-A recruitment to centromeres. It is unclear, however, how the Mis16-Mis18 complex achieves this function. Here, we identified, by mass spectrometry, novel fission yeast centromere proteins Mis19 and Mis20 that directly interact with Mis16 and Mis18. Like Mis18, Mis19 and Mis20 are localized at the centromeres during interphase, but not in mitosis. Inactivation of Mis19 in a newly isolated temperature-sensitive mutant resulted in CENP-A delocalization and massive chromosome missegregation, whereas Mis20 was dispensable for proper chromosome segregation. Mis19 might be a bridge component for Mis16 and Mis18. We isolated extragenic suppressor mutants for temperature-sensitive mis18 and mis19 mutants and used whole-genome sequencing to determine the mutated sites. We identified two groups of loss-of-function suppressor mutations in non-sense-mediated mRNA decay factors (upf2 and ebs1), and in SWI/SNF chromatin-remodeling components (snf5, snf22 and sol1). Our results suggest that the Mis16-Mis18-Mis19-Mis20 CENP-A-recruiting complex, which is functional in the G1-S phase, may be counteracted by the SWI/SNF chromatin-remodeling complex and non-sense-mediated mRNA decay, which may prevent CENP-A deposition at the centromere.

Condensin phosphorylated by the Aurora-B-like kinase Ark1 is continuously required until telophase in a mode distinct from Top2.

Condensin is a conserved protein complex that functions in chromosome condensation and segregation. It has not been previously unequivocally determined whether condensin is required throughout mitosis. Here, we examined whether Schizosaccharomyces pombe condensin continuously acts on chromosomes during mitosis and compared its role with that of DNA topoisomerase II (Top2). Using double mutants containing a temperature-sensitive allele of the condensin SMC2 subunit cut14 (cut14-208) or of top2, together with the cold-sensitive nda3-KM311 mutation (in ß-tubulin), temperature-shift experiments were performed. These experiments allowed inactivation of condensin or Top2 at various stages throughout mitosis, even after late anaphase. The results established that mitotic chromosomes require condensin and Top2 throughout mitosis, even in telophase. We then showed that the Cnd2 subunit of condensin (also known as Barren) is the target subunit of Aurora-B-like kinase Ark1 and that Ark1-mediated phosphorylation of Cnd2 occurred throughout mitosis. The phosphorylation sites in Cnd2 were determined by mass spectrometry, and alanine and glutamate residue replacement mutant constructs for these sites were constructed. Alanine substitution mutants of Cnd2, which mimic the unphosphorylated protein, exhibited broad mitotic defects, including at telophase, and overexpression of these constructs caused a severe dominant-negative effect. By contrast, glutamate substitution mutants, which mimic the phosphorylated protein, alleviated the segregation defect in Ark1-inhibited cells. In telophase, the condensin subunits in cut14-208 mutant accumulated in lumps that contained telomeric DNA and proteins that failed to segregate. Condensin might thus serve to keep the segregated chromosomes apart during telophase.

Mis17 is a regulatory module of the Mis6-Mal2-Sim4 centromere complex that is required for the recruitment of CenH3/CENP-A in fission yeast.

BACKGROUND: The centromere is the chromosome domain on which the mitotic kinetochore forms for proper segregation. Deposition of the centromeric histone H3 (CenH3, CENP-A) is vital for the formation of centromere-specific chromatin. The Mis6-Mal2-Sim4 complex of the fission yeast S. pombe is required for the recruitment of CenH3 (Cnp1), but its function remains obscure. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Mass spectrometry was performed on the proteins precipitated with Mis6- and Mis17-FLAG. The results together with the previously identified Sim4- and Mal2-TAP precipitated proteins indicated that the complex contains 12 subunits, Mis6, Sim4, Mal2, Mis15, Mis17, Cnl2, Fta1-4, Fta6-7, nine of which have human centromeric protein (CENP) counterparts. Domain dissection indicated that the carboxy-half of Mis17 is functional, while its amino-half is regulatory. Overproduction of the amino-half caused strong negative dominance, which led to massive chromosome missegregation and hypersensitivity to the histone deacetylase inhibitor TSA. Mis17 was hyperphosphorylated and overproduction-induced negative dominance was abolished in six kinase-deletion mutants, ssp2 (AMPK), ppk9 (AMPK), ppk15 (Yak1), ppk30 (Ark1), wis4 (Ssk2), and lsk1 (P-TEFb). CONCLUSIONS: Mis17 may be a regulatory module of the Mis6 complex. Negative dominance of the Mis17 fragment is exerted while the complex and CenH3 remain at the centromere, a result that differs from the mislocalization seen in the mis17-362 mutant. The known functions of the kinases suggest an unexpected link between Mis17 and control of the cortex actin, nutrition, and signal/transcription. Possible interpretations are discussed.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe cell division cycle under limited glucose requires Ssp1 kinase, the putative CaMKK, and Sds23, a PP2A-related phosphatase inhibitor.

Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK) is required for diverse cellular functions, and similar kinases exist in fungi. Although mammalian CaMK kinase (CaMKK) activates CaMK and also evolutionarily-conserved AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), CaMKK is yet to be established in yeast. We here report that the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe Ssp1 kinase, which controls G2/M transition and response to stress, is the putative CaMKK. Ssp1 has a CaM binding domain (CBD) and associates with 14-3-3 proteins as mammalian CaMKK does. Temperature-sensitive ssp1 mutants isolated are defective in the tolerance to limited glucose, and this tolerance requires the conserved stretch present between the kinase domain and CBD. Sds23, multi-copy suppressor for mutants defective in type 1 phosphatase and APC/cyclosome, also suppresses the ssp1 phenotype, and is required for the tolerance to limited glucose. We demonstrate that Sds23 binds to type 2A protein phosphatases (PP2A) and PP2A-related phosphatase Ppe1, and that Sds23 inhibits Ppe1 phosphatase activity. Ssp1 and Ppe1 thus seem to antagonize in utilizing limited glucose. We also show that Ppk9 and Ssp2 are the catalytic subunits of AMPK and AMPK-related kinases, respectively, which bind to common beta-(Amk2) and gamma-(Cbs2) subunits.

Dissection of the essential steps for condensin accumulation at kinetochores and rDNAs during fission yeast mitosis.

The condensin complex has a fundamental role in chromosome dynamics. In this study, we report that accumulation of Schizosaccharomyces pombe condensin at mitotic kinetochores and ribosomal DNAs (rDNAs) occurs in multiple steps and is necessary for normal segregation of the sister kinetochores and rDNAs. Nuclear entry of condensin at the onset of mitosis requires Cut15/importin alpha and Cdc2 phosphorylation. Ark1/aurora and Cut17/Bir1/survivin are needed to dock the condensin at both the kinetochores and rDNAs. Furthermore, proteins that are necessary to form the chromatin architecture of the kinetochores (Mis6, Cnp1, and Mis13) and rDNAs (Nuc1 and Acr1) are required for condensin to accumulate specifically at these sites. Acr1 (accumulation of condensin at rDNA 1) is an rDNA upstream sequence binding protein that physically interacts with Rrn5, Rrn11, Rrn7, and Spp27 and is required for the proper accumulation of Nuc1 at rDNAs. The mechanism of condensin accumulation at the kinetochores may be conserved, as human condensin II fails to accumulate at kinetochores in hMis6 RNA interference-treated cells.

Cut1/separase-dependent roles of multiple phosphorylation of fission yeast cohesion subunit Rad21 in post-replicative damage repair and mitosis.

Cohesin is a multiprotein complex essential for sister-chromatid cohesion. It plays a pivotal role in proper chromosome segregation and DNA damage repair. The mitotic behavior of cohesin is controlled through its phosphorylation, which possibly induces the dissociation of cohesin from chromosomes and enhances its susceptibility to separase. Here, we report using mass spectrometry and anti-phospho antibodies that the central domain of Rad21, the separase-target subunit of Schizosaccharomyces pombe cohesin, is regulated by various kinase-induced phosphorylation at nine residues, indicating the multiple roles for S. pombe cohesin. In vegetative and non-dividing G(0) cells, Rad21 is phosphorylated by unknown S/TP-consensus kinases, in mitotic and non-mitotic cells by polo/Plo1 and CDK, and in DNA-damaged cells by Rad3/ATR. While mitotic phosphorylation is implicated in the dissociation of Rad21 and its cleavage by separase in anaphase, the Rad3/ATR-dependent damage-induced phosphorylation occurs intensively at the time of repair completion, and only in post-replicative cells. This damage-induced Rad21 phosphorylation is involved in the recovery process of cells from checkpoint arrest, and needed for the removal of cohesin by separase after the completion of damage repair. These complex phospho-regulations of Rad21 indicate the functional significance of cohesin in cell adaptation to a variety of cellular conditions.

Rapamycin sensitivity of the Schizosaccharomyces pombe tor2 mutant and organization of two highly phosphorylated TOR complexes by specific and common subunits.

Nutrients are essential for cell growth and division. Screening of Schizosaccharomyces pombe temperature-sensitive strains led to the isolation of a nutrient-insensitive mutant, tor2-287. This mutant produces a nitrogen starvation-induced arrest phenotype in rich media, fails to recover from the arrest, and is hypersensitive to rapamycin. The L2048S substitution mutation in the catalytic domain in close proximity to the adenine base of ATP is unique as it is the sole known genetic cause of rapamycin hypersensitivity. Localization of Tor2 was speckled in the vegetative cytoplasm, and both speckled and membranous in the arrested cell cytoplasm. Using mass spectroscopic analysis, we identified six subunits (Tco89, Bit61, Toc1, Tel2, Tti1 and Cka1) that, in addition to the six previously identified subunits (Tor1, Tor2, Mip1/Raptor, Ste20/Rictor, Sin1/Avo1 and Wat1/Lst8), comprise the TOR complexes (TORCs). All of the subunits so far examined are multiply phosphorylated. Tel2 bound to Tti1 interacts with various phosphatidyl inositol kinase (PIK)-related kinases including Tra1, Tra2 and Rad3, as well as Tor1 and Tor2. Schizosaccharomyces pombe TORCs should thus be functionally redundant and might be broadly regulated through different subunits that are either common or specific to the two TORCs, or even common to various PIK-related kinases. Functional redundancy of the TORCs may explain the rapamycin hypersensitivity of tor2-287.