Receptor-transporter interactions of canonical ATP-binding cassette import systems in prokaryotes.

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transport systems mediate the translocation of solutes across biological membranes at the expense of ATP. They share a common modular architecture comprising two pore-forming transmembrane domains and two nucleotide binding domains. In prokaryotes, ABC transporters are involved in the uptake of a large variety of chemicals, including nutrients, osmoprotectants and signal molecules. In pathogenic bacteria, some ABC importers are virulence factors. Canonical ABC import systems require an additional component, a substrate-specific receptor or binding protein for function. Interaction of the liganded receptor with extracytoplasmic loop regions of the transmembrane domains initiate the transport cycle. In this review we summarize the current knowledge on receptor-transporter interplay provided by crystal structures as well as by biochemical and biophysical means. In particular, we focus on the maltose/maltodextrin transporter of enterobacteria and the transporters for positively charged amino acids from the thermophile Geobacillus stearothermophilus and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium.

Studying subunit-subunit interactions in a bacterial ABC transporterby in vitro assembly.

The thermostable arginine ABC transporter of Geobacillus stearothermophilus consists of a solute binding protein, ArtJ; a transmembrane subunit, ArtM; and a nucleotide-binding subunit, ArtP. An ArtM/His(6)-ArtP complex was functionally assembled from separately purified subunits as demonstrated by assaying stimulation of its ATPase activity by arginine-loaded ArtJ in proteoliposomes. Studying in vitro assembly with variants carrying mutations in the conserved Q loop and/or the EAA loop of ArtP and ArtM, respectively, confirmed the predicted roles of both motifs in intersubunit signaling and physical interaction, respectively. In vitro assembly is considered a useful tool for investigating assembly defects of ABC transporters caused by mutations.

The second extracellular loop of pore-forming subunits of ATP-binding cassette transporters for basic amino acids plays a crucial role in interaction with the cognate solute binding protein(s).

In the thermophile Geobacillus stearothermophilus, the uptake of basic amino acids is mediated by an ABC transporter composed of the substrate binding protein (receptor) ArtJ and a homodimer each of the pore-forming subunit, ArtM, and the nucleotide-binding subunit, ArtP. We recently identified two putative binding sites in ArtJ that might interact with the Art(MP)(2) complex, thereby initiating the transport cycle (A. Vahedi-Faridi et al., J. Mol. Biol. 375:448-459, 2008). Here we investigated the contribution of charged amino acid residues in the second extracellular loop of ArtM to contact with ArtJ. Our results demonstrate a crucial role for residues K177, R185, and E188, since mutations to oppositely charged amino acids or glutamine led to a complete loss of ArtJ-stimulated ATPase activity of the complex variants in proteoliposomes. The defects could not be suppressed by ArtJ variants carrying mutations in site I (K39E and K152E) or II (E163K and D170K), suggesting a more complex interplay than that by a single salt bridge. These findings were supported by cross-linking assays demonstrating physical proximity between ArtJ(N166C) and ArtM(E182C). The importance of positively charged residues for receptor-transporter interaction was underscored by mutational analysis of the closely related transporter HisJ/LAO-HisQMP(2) of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. While transporter variants with mutated positively charged residues in HisQ displayed residual ATPase activities, corresponding mutants of HisM could no longer be stimulated by HisJ/LAO. Interestingly, the ATPase activity of the HisQM(K187E)P(2) variant was inhibited by l- and d-histidine in detergent, suggesting a role of the residue in preventing free histidine from gaining access to the substrate binding site within HisQM.

Crystal structures and mutational analysis of the arginine-, lysine-, histidine-binding protein ArtJ from Geobacillus stearothermophilus. Implications for interactions of ArtJ with its cognate ATP-binding cassette transporter, Art(MP)2.

ArtJ is the substrate-binding component (receptor) of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transport system ArtJ-(MP)(2) from the thermophilic bacterium Geobacillus stearothermophilus that is specific for arginine, lysine, and histidine. The highest affinity is found for arginine (K(d)=0.039(+/-0.014) microM), while the affinities for lysine and histidine are about tenfold lower. We have determined the X-ray structures of ArtJ liganded with each of these substrates at resolutions of 1.79 A (arginine), 1.79 A (lysine), and 2.35 A (histidine), respectively. As found for other solute receptors, the polypeptide chain is folded into two distinct domains (lobes) connected by a hinge. The interface between the lobes forms the substrate-binding pocket whose geometry is well preserved in all three ArtJ/amino acid complexes. Structure-derived mutational analyses indicated the crucial role of a region in the carboxy-terminal lobe of ArtJ in contacting the transport pore Art(MP)(2) and revealed the functional importance of Gln132 and Trp68. While variant Gln132Leu exhibited lower binding affinity for arginine but no binding of lysine and histidine, the variant Trp68Leu had lost binding activity for all three substrates. The results are discussed in comparison with known structures of homologous proteins from mesophilic bacteria.

Mapping putative contact sites between subunits in a bacterial ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter by synthetic peptide libraries.

The maltose ATP-binding cassette transporter of Salmonella typhimurium is composed of the soluble periplasmic receptor, MalE, and a membrane-associated complex comprising one copy each of the pore-forming hydrophobic subunits, MalF and MalG, and of a homodimer of the ATP-hydrolyzing subunit, MalK. During the transport process the subunits are thought to undergo conformational changes that might transiently alter molecular contacts between MalFG and MalK(2). In order to map sites of subunit-subunit interactions we have used a comprehensive peptide mapping approach comprising large-scale microsynthesis of labelled probes and array techniques. In particular, we screened the binding of (i) MalFG-derived soluble biotinylated peptides to immobilized MalK, and (ii) radiolabelled MalK to MalFG-derived cellulose membrane-bound peptides. The first approach identified seven peptides (10mers) each of MalF and MalG that specifically bound to MalK. The peptides were localized to TMDs 3 and 6, periplasmic loop P4 and cytoplasmic loops C2 and C3 of MalF, while MalG-derived peptides localized to the N terminus, TMDs 4-6, periplasmic loop P1 and cytoplasmic loop C2. Peptides from C3 and C2, respectively, of MalF and MalG partially encompass the conserved EAA-motif, known to be crucial for interaction with MalK. These results were basically confirmed by screening MalFG-derived peptide arrays consisting of 16mers or 31mers with radiolabelled MalK. This approach also allowed us to perform complete substitutional analyses of peptides in question. The results led to the construction of MalFG variants that were subsequently analyzed for functional consequences in vivo. Growth experiments revealed that most of the mutations had no phenotype, suggesting that the mutated residues themselves are not critical but part of a discontinuous binding site. However, two novel mutations affecting residues from the EAA motifs of MalF (Ile417Glu) and MalG (Phe203Gln/Asn), respectively, displayed severe growth defects, indicating their functional importance. Together, these experimental outcomes identify specific molecular contacts made between MalK and MalFG that extend beyond the well-characterized EAA motif.

Cloning, expression, and purification of the general stress protein YhbO from Escherichia coli.

We cloned, expressed, and purified the Escherichia coli yhbO gene product, which is an amino acid sequence homolog to the Bacillus subtilis general stress protein 18 (the yfkM gene product), the Pyrococcus furiosus intracellular protease PfpI, and the human Parkinson disease protein DJ-1. The gene coding for YhbO was generated by amplifying the yhbO gene from E. coli by polymerase chain reaction. It was inserted into the expression plasmid pET-21a, under the transcriptional control of the bacteriophage T7 promoter and lac operator. A BL21 (DE3) E. coli strain transformed with the YhbO-expression vector, pET-21a-yhbO, accumulates large amounts of a soluble protein with a molecular mass of 20 kDa in SDS-PAGE that matches the expected YhbO molecular weight. YhbO was purified to homogeneity by ion exchange chromatography and hydroxyapatite chromatography, and its identity was confirmed by N-terminal sequencing and mass spectrometry analysis. The native protein exists in monomeric, trimeric, and hexameric forms. We also report a strong sequence homology between YhbO and the general stress protein YfkM (64% identities), which suggests that YhbO is a stress protein, and a strong structural homology between YhbO and the Pyrococcus horikoshii intracellular protease PhpI. We could not, however, detect any proteolytic or peptidolytic activity of YhbO, using classical biochemical substrates.

Peptidase activity of the Escherichia coli Hsp31 chaperone.

Hsp31, the Escherichia coli hcha gene product, is a molecular chaperone whose activity is inhibited by ATP at high temperature. Its crystal structure reveals a putative Cys(184), His(185), and Asp(213) catalytic triad similar to that of the Pyrococcus horikoshii protease PH1704, suggesting that it should display a proteolytic activity. A preliminary report has shown that Hsp31 has an exceedingly weak proteolytic activity toward bovine serum albumin and a peptidase activity toward two peptide substrates with small amino acids at their N terminus (alanine or glycine), but the physiological significance of this observation remains unclear. In this study, we report that Hsp31 does not diplay any significant proteolytic activity but has peptidolytic activity. The aminopeptidase cleavage preference of Hsp31 is Ala > Lys > Arg > His, suggesting that Hsp31 is an aminopeptidase of broad specificity. Its aminopeptidase activity is inhibited by the thiol reagent iodoacetamide and is completely abolished in a C185A mutant, which is consistent with Hsp31 being a cysteine peptidase. The aminopeptidase activity of Hsp31 is also inhibited by EDTA and 1,10-phenanthroline, in concordance with the importance of the putative His(85), His(122), and Glu(90) metal-binding site revealed by crystallographic studies. An Hsp31-deficient mutant accumulates more 8-12-mer peptides than its parental strain, and purified Hsp31 can transform these peptides into smaller peptides, suggesting that Hsp31 has an important peptidase function both in vivo and in vitro. Proteins interacting with Hsp31 have been identified by reverse purification of a crude E. coli extract on an Hsp31-affinity column, followed by SDS-polyacrylamide electrophoresis and mass spectrometry. The ClpA component of the ClpAP protease, the chaperone GroEL, elongation factor EF-Tu, and tryptophanase were all found to interact with Hsp31, thus substantiating the role of Hsp31 as both chaperone and peptidase.