Perceived Access to Healthcare of Indigenous Peoples in Canada With Rheumatoid Arthritis and Their First-Degree Relatives.

OBJECTIVE: There are complex and interrelated factors that lead to inequitable healthcare delivery in Canada. Many of the factors that underlie these inequities for Canada's geographically dispersed Indigenous peoples remain underexamined. METHODS: A cohort of 831 First Nations (FN) individuals from urban and remote communities were recruited into a longitudinal study of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) risk from 2005 to 2017. Data from each participant's initial enrollment visit were assessed using a survey that captured concerns with healthcare access. RESULTS: We found that remote participants with RA reported poor access compared to remote first-degree relatives (FDRs; P < 0.001); this difference was not observed for urban participants with RA. We observed substantial differences based on sex; female participants perceived access to care to be more difficult than male participants in both urban and remote cohorts (P < 0.001). We also observed that male participants with RA reported poor access to care compared to male FDRs. Importantly, access to care in remote communities appeared to improve over the duration of the study (P = 0.01). In a logistic regression analysis, female sex, remote location, and older age were independent predictors of poor access to care. Predictors of poor access in participants with RA also included female sex, remote location, and older age. CONCLUSION: FN peoples living in remote communities, particularly those with an established RA diagnosis, report more problems accessing health care. Sex-based inequities exist, with FN female individuals reporting greater difficulties in accessing appropriate health care, regardless of RA diagnosis. Addressing these sex-based inequities should be a high priority for improving healthcare delivery.

Modifiable risk factors linked to the development of rheumatoid arthritis: evidence, immunological mechanisms and prevention.

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is a common autoimmune disease that targets the synovial joints leading to arthritis. Although the etiology of RA remains largely unknown, it is clear that numerous modifiable risk factors confer increased risk to developing RA. Of these risk factors, cigarette smoking, nutrition, obesity, occupational exposures and periodontal disease all incrementally increase RA risk. However, the precise immunological mechanisms by which these risk factors lead to RA are not well understood. Basic and translational studies have provided key insights into the relationship between inflammation, antibody production and the influence in other key cellular events such as T cell polarization in RA risk. Improving our general understanding of the mechanisms which lead to RA will help identify targets for prevention trials, which are underway in at-risk populations. Herein, we review the modifiable risk factors that are linked to RA development and describe immune mechanisms that may be involved. We highlight the few studies that have sought to understand if modification of these risk factors reduces RA risk. Finally, we speculate that modification of risk factors may be an appealing avenue for prevention for some at-risk individuals, specifically those who prefer lifestyle interventions due to safety and economic reasons.

Disparities in rheumatoid arthritis outcomes for North American Indigenous populations.

Advances in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) management have significantly improved clinical outcomes of this disease; however, some Indigenous North Americans (INA) with RA have not achieved the high rates of treatment success observed in other populations. We review factors contributing to poor long-term outcomes for INA with RA. We conducted a narrative review of studies evaluating RA in INA supplemented with regional administrative health and clinical cohort data on clinical outcomes and health care utilisation. We discuss factors related to conducting research in INA populations including studies of RA prevention. NA with RA have a high burden of genetic and environmental predisposing risk factors that may impact disease phenotype, delayed or limited access to rheumatology care and advanced therapy. These factors may contribute to the observed increased rates of persistent synovitis, premature end-stage joint damage and mortality. Novel models of care delivery that are culturally sensitive and address challenges associated with providing speciality care to patients residing in remote communities with limited accessibility are needed. Progress in establishing respectful research partnerships with INA communities has created a foundation for ongoing initiatives to address care gaps including those aimed at RA prevention. This review highlights some of the challenges of diagnosing, treating, and ultimately perhaps preventing, RA in INA populations.

Serum proteomic networks associate with pre-clinical rheumatoid arthritis autoantibodies and longitudinal outcomes.

Objectives: The development of autoantibody directed towards citrullinated proteins (ACPA) are predictive of RA in at-risk individuals. The biological events that underpin loss of immune tolerance and progression into inflammatory arthritis are not known. We sought to identify serum proteomic alterations that drive autoantibody formation, persistence and progression into inflammatory arthritis in a cohort of first-degree relatives (FDR) of RA patients. Methods: We studied baseline serum samples from a cohort of Indigenous FDR (n = 147) and quantified serum proteins using a 48-plex platform. Longitudinal outcomes were defined on the basis of ACPA status and progression into inflammatory arthritis (IA). K-means clustering, differential expression, and principal components analyze group differences. A co-expression module analysis was used to identify enriched networks. Random forest was used to classify ACPA positive samples, while network analysis was used to understand underlying biological processes based on protein expression. Results: We defined 6 proteomic clusters, with enrichment of ACPA positive samples in one of the clusters. 23 of 24 differentially expressed proteins in ACPA positive samples were upregulated. A co-expression network was enriched in ACPA positive sera and individuals who progressed into IA. Random Forest achieved an area under the curve of 0.767 to classify ACPA positive sera in a test dataset. Network analysis revealed upregulation of JAK-STAT signalling as being activated in those at highest risk to develop future IA. Conclusions: The serum proteome provides a rich dataset to understand biological processes in ACPA seropositive individuals. A combination of serum biomarkers, including ACPA, may predict future arthritis onset in at-risk individuals.

IgG Anti-Citrullinated Protein Antibody Variable Domain Glycosylation Increases Before the Onset of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Stabilizes Thereafter: A Cross-Sectional Study Encompassing ~1,500 Samples.

OBJECTIVE: The autoimmune response in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is marked by the presence of anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPAs). A notable feature of IgG ACPA is the abundant expression of N-linked glycans in the variable domain. However, the presence of ACPA variable domain glycosylation (VDG) across disease stages, and its response to therapy, are poorly described. To understand its dynamics, we investigated the abundance of IgG ACPA VDG in 1,498 samples from individuals in different clinical stages. METHODS: Using liquid chromatography, we analyzed IgG ACPA VDG profiles in 7 different cohorts from Japan, Canada, The Netherlands, and Sweden. We assessed 106 healthy individuals, 228 individuals with presymptomatic RA, 277 individuals with arthralgia, 307 patients with new-onset/early RA, and 117 RA patients after prespecified treatment regimens. Additionally, we measured VDG in 234 samples from patients with RA who did or did not achieve long-term drug-free remission (DFR) during up to 16 years follow-up. RESULTS: IgG ACPA VDG significantly increased (P < 0.0001) toward disease onset and was associated with ACPA levels and epitope spreading prior to diagnosis. A slight increase in VDG was observed in patients with established RA, with a moderate influence of treatment (P = 0.007). In patients in whom DFR was later achieved, IgG ACPA VDG was already reduced at the time of RA onset. CONCLUSION: The abundance of IgG ACPA VDG increases toward RA onset and correlates with maturation of the ACPA response. While IgG ACPA VDG levels are fairly stable in established disease, a lower degree of VDG at RA onset correlates with DFR. Although the underlying biologic mechanisms remain elusive, our data support the concept that VDG relates to an expansion of the ACPA response in the pre-disease phase and contributes to disease development.

Functional Disability to Evaluate the Risk of Arthritis in First-degree Relatives of Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis.

OBJECTIVE: The events that occur prior to the onset of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) continue to be delineated. We examined the relationship between self-reported joint symptoms, functional disability, and anticitrullinated protein antibody (ACPA) status in a cohort of first-degree relatives (FDR) of patients with RA who are at risk of future disease development. METHODS: We studied a cohort of 279 FDR of First Nations (FN) patients with RA who are at increased risk for future RA development, and analyzed data collected at their enrollment study visit. In parallel, we analyzed data from 279 FN subjects with no family history of RA. A subset of FDR developed inflammatory arthritis and we analyzed longitudinal data in this group. RESULTS: The prevalence of joint symptoms and functional disability was higher in FDR compared to non-FDR (all P < 0.001). Difficulty walking (37.3% vs 18.0%) and modified Health Assessment Questionnaire (HAQ) results were higher in ACPA-positive FDR compared to ACPA-negative FDR, and HAQ was independently associated with ACPA seropositivity (OR 2.79, 95% CI 1.56-5.00). Longitudinally, in individuals who developed ACPA-positive RA, ACPA level and HAQ score were significantly associated (R = 0.45, P < 0.001) in the preclinical period. CONCLUSION: Compared to population-based controls, FDR have a high burden of joint symptoms and functional disability. Functional disability was most closely associated with ACPA seropositivity in the FDR, suggesting a direct role for ACPA outside of the context of clinically detectable synovitis. HAQ appears to be particularly valuable in the assessment of individuals at risk for future RA development.

Proteomic Approaches to Defining Remission and the Risk of Relapse in Rheumatoid Arthritis.

Objectives: Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) are increasingly achieving stable disease remission, yet the mechanisms that govern ongoing clinical disease and subsequent risk of future flare are not well understood. We sought to identify serum proteomic alterations that dictate clinically important features of stable RA, and couple broad-based proteomics with machine learning to predict future flare. Methods: We studied baseline serum samples from a cohort of stable RA patients (RETRO, n = 130) in clinical remission (DAS28<2.6) and quantified 1307 serum proteins using the SOMAscan platform. Unsupervised hierarchical clustering and supervised classification were applied to identify proteomic-driven clusters and model biomarkers that were associated with future disease flare after 12 months of follow-up and RA medication withdrawal. Network analysis was used to define pathways that were enriched in proteomic datasets. Results: We defined 4 proteomic clusters, with one cluster (Cluster 4) displaying a lower mean DAS28 score (p = 0.03), with DAS28 associating with humoral immune responses and complement activation. Clustering did not clearly predict future risk of flare, however an XGboost machine learning algorithm classified patients who relapsed with an AUC (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve) of 0.80 using only baseline serum proteomics. Conclusions: The serum proteome provides a rich dataset to understand stable RA and its clinical heterogeneity. Combining proteomics and machine learning may enable prediction of future RA disease flare in patients with RA who aim to withdrawal therapy.

Association of a Serum Protein Signature With Rheumatoid Arthritis Development.

OBJECTIVE: The pathophysiologic events that precede the onset of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) remain incompletely understood. This study was undertaken to identify changes in the serum proteome that precede the onset of RA, with the aim of providing new insights into the pathogenic mechanisms that lead to its development. METHODS: In a cohort of first-degree relatives of Indigenous North American RA patients, the SomaScan proteomics platform was used to determine the levels of 1,307 proteins in multiple longitudinal serum samples from 17 individuals who were followed up prospectively to the time of disease onset. Proteomic signatures from this group of individuals (designated the progressor group) were compared to those in a group of individuals who were considered at risk of developing RA, stratified as either positive (n = 63) or negative (n = 47) for anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPAs) (designated the at-risk group). Machine learning was used to identify a protein signature that could accurately classify those individuals at highest risk of future RA development. RESULTS: A preclinical proteomic signature that differentiated RA progressors from at-risk individuals, irrespective of ACPA status, was identified (area under the curve 0.913, accuracy 91.2%). Importantly, the predictive preclinical proteomic signature was present not only in serum samples obtained close to the onset of RA, but also in serum samples obtained a median of 30.9 months prior to onset. Network analysis implicated the activation of Toll-like receptor 2 and production of tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-1 as key events that precede RA progression. CONCLUSION: Alterations in the serum proteome in the preclinical phase of RA can emerge years prior to the onset of disease. Our findings suggest that the serum proteome provides a rich source of proteins serving both to classify at-risk individuals and to identify molecular pathways involved in the development of clinically detectable RA.

Human host defence peptide LL37 and anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide antibody in early inflammatory arthritis.

Objective: Antibodies to citrullinated peptides (anti-CCP) develop in individuals predisposed to rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Neutrophil extracellular traps are a major source of citrullinated antigens and the immunomodulatory host defence peptide LL-37. Vitamin D regulates LL-37 expression. This study assessed the associations of LL-37 and anti-CCP, vitamin D metabolites and vitamin D receptor (VDR) polymorphisms in early inflammatory arthritis (EIA). Methods: Serum LL-37, 25-hydroxy-vitamin D (25OHvitD) and anti-CCP were measured by ELISA in treatment naïve EIA (n = 181). VDR single nucleotide polymorphisms (Fok1, Bsm1, Apa1, Taq1, Cdx-2) and HLADRB1 shared epitope (SE) alleles were detected by DNA amplification. Associations were tested in multivariable models. Median (25%, 75%) or percentiles are reported. Results: Participants (70 % female, age 56 [45, 66] years, disease activity score [DAS28ESR3var] 3.7 [2.8, 4.8], 41 % anti-CCP positive, 68 % RA) had low serum 25OHvitD; 20.5 nmol/L (13.9, 29.0). In multivariable models, controlling for age, sex, SE, smoking and vitamin D deficiency, LL37 level (top quartile) associated with anti-CCP seropositivity (OR 22; 95% CI 4 to 104). Conclusions: Levels of circulating LL-37 are associated with anti-CCP seropositivity. LL37 activity may be one mechanism linking infection and toxin exposure to anti-CCP generation.

Characterization of Autoantigens Targeted by Anti-Citrullinated Protein Antibodies In Vivo: Prominent Role for Epitopes Derived from Histone 4 Proteins.

Anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPA) have become an integral part of the clinical definition of rheumatoid arthritis, and are hypothesized to be important in the immunopathogenesis of this autoimmune disease. Several citrullinated proteins have been demonstrated to serve as candidate autoantigens for the ACPA, based on in vitro immune reactions between citrullinated peptides/proteins and RA sera. Yet it remains unclear whether the autoantigens identified in vitro are indeed directly and specifically targeted by the ACPA in vivo. Moreover, it is unclear whether ACPA present in RA sera are directed towards the same spectrum of autoantigens as the ACPA present within the synovial compartment. In this study, we isolated ACPA immune complexes from RA synovial fluids (SF) and sera by using immobilized cyclic citrullinated peptides (CCP3) based immune affinity, and characterized the proteins that are directly and specifically associated with them by mass spectrometry. The results demonstrate that four histone proteins are prominent ACPA autoantigens, with the frequency of detection being histone H4 (89%), H2B (63%), H3 (63%), and H2A (58%) in ACPA positive RA SF. We further demonstrate that a histone 4 peptide containing citrulline at position Cit39 was recognized by 100% of ACPA positive RA SF. An adjacent citrulline residue at Cit40 was recognized by 34% of ACPA positive RA SF. An H4 peptide containing Cit39-40 was recognized in the serum of 94% ACPA positive RA, 77% ACPA positive first-degree relatives (FDR) of RA patients, and 2.5% of healthy controls. The Cit39-40 peptide substantially blocked the ACPA reactivity in both SF and serum. Although the spectrum of ACPA we identified was limited to those isolated using immobilized CCP3 peptides, the findings indicate that H4 is a widely recognized RA autoantigen in both the synovial and serum compartments. The identification of this immunodominant ACPA epitope may be valuable in designing approaches to immune tolerance induction in RA.

Development of an SRM method for absolute quantitation of MYDGF/C19orf10 protein.

PURPOSE: To develop a MS-based selected reaction monitoring (SRM) assay for quantitation of myeloid-derived growth factor (MYDGF) formerly chromosome 19 open reading frame (C19orf10). EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Candidate reporter peptides were identified in digests of recombinant MYDGF. Isotopically labeled forms of these reporter peptides were employed as internal standards for assay development. Two reference peptides were selected SYLYFQTFFK and GAEIEYAMAYSK with respective LOQ of 42 and 380 attomole per injection. RESULTS: Application of the assay to human serum and synovial fluid determined that the assay sensitivity was reduced and quantitation was not achievable. However, the partial depletion of albumin and immunoglobulin from synovial fluids provided estimates of 300-650 femtomoles per injection (0.7-1.6 nanomolar (nM) fluid concentrations) in three of the six samples analyzed. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A validated sensitive assay for the quantitation of MYDGF in biological fluids was developed. However, the endogenous levels of MYDGF in such fluids are at or below the current levels of quantitation. The levels of MYDGF are lower than those previously reported using an ELISA. The current results suggest that additional steps may be required to remove high abundance proteins or to enrich MYDGF for SRM-based quantitation.

High degree of correlation between whole blood and PBMC expression levels of miR-155 and miR-146a in healthy controls and rheumatoid arthritis patients.

Elevated expression of specific microRNAs (miRNA) in peripheral blood-derived mononuclear cells (PBMC), particularly miR-146a and miR-155, is associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Whole blood has not been explored as a potential clinical material for monitoring the expression of miRNAs in RA. We sought to determine whether miRNA levels detected in whole blood samples correlated with those detected in simultaneously isolated peripheral blood-derived mononuclear cells (PBMC) from the same individuals, thus establishing the feasibility of using whole blood as a viable clinical material for monitoring miRNA expression in RA and other disorders. We demonstrated a highly significant linear correlation between miR-146a and miR-155 expression in PBMC and whole blood, from both healthy individuals and RA patients. Whole blood samples accurately reflect miRNA levels in PBMC and would be useful in monitoring the expression of miRNAs as biomarkers. The detection of miRNA levels in samples that are readily obtained in routine clinical practice, such as whole blood, enhances their potential utility in detecting changes in the immunological mechanisms underlying autoimmune diseases such as RA.

Prevalence of anti-peptidylarginine deiminase type 4 antibodies in rheumatoid arthritis and unaffected first-degree relatives in indigenous North American Populations.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether anti-peptidylarginine deiminase type 4 (PAD4) antibodies were present in first-degree relatives (FDR) of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in 2 indigenous North American populations with high prevalence of RA. METHODS: Participants were recruited from 2 indigenous populations in Canada and the United States, including patients with RA (probands), their unaffected FDR, and healthy unrelated controls. Sera were tested for the presence of anti-PAD4 antibodies, anticyclic citrullinated peptide (anti-CCP) antibodies, and rheumatoid factor (RF). HLA-DRB1 subtyping was performed and participants were classified according to number of shared-epitope alleles present. RESULTS: Antibodies to PAD4 were detected in 24 of 82 (29.3%) probands; 2 of 147 (1.4%) relatives; and no controls (p < 0.0001). Anti-CCP was present in 39/144 (27.1%) of the relatives, and there was no overlap between positivity for anti-CCP and PAD4 in the relatives. In RA patients, anti-PAD4 antibodies were associated with disease duration (p = 0.0082) and anti-CCP antibodies (p = 0.008), but not smoking or shared-epitope alleles. CONCLUSION: Despite a significant prevalence of anti-CCP in FDR, anti-PAD4 antibodies were almost exclusively found in established RA. The prevalence of anti-PAD4 antibodies in RA is similar to the prevalence described in other populations and these autoantibodies are associated with disease duration and anti-CCP in RA.

First-degree relatives of patients with rheumatoid arthritis exhibit high prevalence of joint symptoms.

OBJECTIVE: The preclinical period of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is characterized by the presence of autoantibodies such as anticitrullinated protein antibodies (ACPA) and rheumatoid factor (RF). Little is known about the joint symptom profile preceding onset of RA, and whether symptoms are associated with RA autoantibodies. Because first-degree relatives (FDR) of North American Native (NAN) RA probands exhibit multiple risk factors for development of future RA, we investigated the prevalence of joint symptoms in this high-risk population. METHODS: We studied 306 FDR of NAN patients with RA, 323 NAN controls (NC), and 293 white controls (WC) having no family history of autoimmune diseases. Study subjects completed a questionnaire that asked whether they had pain, swelling, or morning stiffness in their hand joints, or in other joints. Serum samples were gathered at the same time and tested for the presence of ACPA, RF, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels. RESULTS: In all cases, FDR were significantly more likely to report experiencing joint symptoms compared to the 2 control groups. FDR also exhibited a significantly higher prevalence of RA autoantibodies than the control groups. There were modest trends for joint symptoms to associate with RA autoantibodies, and individuals who were both ACPA-positive and RF-positive had the highest prevalence of joint symptoms. CONCLUSION: FDR of NAN patients with RA have a higher prevalence of joint symptoms compared to individuals with no family history of autoimmune disease. This finding is only partially explained by a high prevalence of RA autoantibodies in the FDR.

Pregnancy and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis in a highly predisposed North American Native population.

OBJECTIVE: To examine reproductive history and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) risk in a highly predisposed population of North American Natives (NAN) with unique fertility characteristics. METHODS: The effect of pregnancy on the risk of RA was examined by comparing women enrolled in 2 studies: a study of RA in NAN patients and their unaffected relatives; and NAN patients with RA and unrelated healthy NAN controls enrolled in a study of autoimmunity. All participants completed questionnaires detailing their reproductive history. RESULTS: Patients with RA (n = 168) and controls (n = 400) were similar overall in age, education, shared epitope frequency, number of pregnancies, age at first pregnancy, smoking, and breastfeeding history. In multivariate analysis, for women who had ≥ 6 births the OR for developing RA was 0.43 (95% CI 0.21-0.87) compared with women who had 1-2 births (p = 0.046); for women who gave birth for the first time after age 20 the OR for developing RA was 0.33 (95% CI 0.16-0.66) compared with women whose first birth occurred at age ≤ 17 (p = 0.001). The highest risk of developing RA was in the first postpartum year (OR 3.8; 95% CI 1.45-9.93) compared with subsequent years (p = 0.004). CONCLUSION: In this unique population, greater parity significantly reduced the odds of RA; an early age at first birth increased the odds, and the postpartum period was confirmed as high risk for RA onset. The protective effect of repeated exposure to the ameliorating hormonal and immunological changes of pregnancy may counterbalance the effect of early exposure to the postpartum reversal of these changes.

Vitamin D receptor polymorphism rs2228570 (Fok1) is associated with rheumatoid arthritis in North American natives.

OBJECTIVE: Vitamin D (VitD) has immunomodulatory activity relevant to rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and acts by binding nuclear receptors that regulate gene transcription. VitD receptor polymorphisms have been variably associated with RA. Because North American Native (NAN) populations have a high prevalence of RA with a strong genetic contribution, we studied potential associations of the rs2228570 (Fok1) VitD receptor polymorphism in a Canadian NAN population. METHODS: The single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) Fok1 was tested by sequencing NAN patients with RA (n=448) and unrelated NAN controls (n=704). Associations were tested using genotypic, dominant, and recessive models. RESULTS: The minor allele frequency (F/C) in the NAN control population was 0.44 and lower than reported in white subjects of the same geographical area. The Fok1 VitD receptor SNP was significantly associated with RA. Comparing patients with RA to unaffected NAN controls, the Fok1 SNP was associated with RA using both genotypic [FF vs Ff vs ff: RA 20%, 54%, 26% vs control 22%, 44%, 34% (chi-square 13.35, p=0.003)] and dominant models [FF/Ff vs ff: RA 74% vs 26% control 66% vs 34% (OR 1.5, 95% CI 1.16-1.96, p=0.003)]. This association was strongest in shared-epitope-positive RA. CONCLUSION: VitD receptor polymorphisms may contribute to the high prevalence of RA in NAN populations.

Chronic smoke exposure induces rheumatoid factor and anti-heat shock protein 70 autoantibodies in susceptible mice and humans with lung disease.

The impact of cigarette smoke (CS), a risk factor for rheumatoid arthritis (RA), on sauto-antibody production was studied in humans and mice with and without chronic lung disease (LD). Rheumatoid factor (RF), anti-cyclic citrullinated peptides (CCPs), and anti-HSP70 autoantibodies were measured in several mouse strains and in cohorts of smokers and nonsmokers with and without autoimmune disease. Chronic smoking-induced RFs in AKR/J mice, which are most susceptible to LD. RFs were identified in human smokers, preferentially in those with LD. Anti-HSP70 auto-antibodies were identified in CS-exposed AKR/J mice but not in ambient air exposed AKR/J controls. Whereas inflammation could induce anti-HSP70 IgM, smoke exposure promoted the switch to anti-HSP70 IgG autoantibodies. Elevated anti-CCP autoantibodies were not detected in CS-exposed mice or smokers. AKR/J splenocytes stimulated in vitro by immune complexes (ICs) of HSP70/anti-HSP70 antibodies produced RFs. The CD91 scavenger pathway was required as anti-CD91 blocked the HSP70-IC-induced RF response. Blocking Toll-like receptors did not influence the HSP70-IC-induced RFs. These studies identify both anti-HSP70 and RFs as serological markers of smoke-related LD in humans and mice. Identification of these autoantibodies could suggest a common environmental insult, namely CS, in a number of different disease settings.

Familial clustering of the serum cytokine profile in the relatives of rheumatoid arthritis patients.

OBJECTIVE: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is prevalent in North American Native populations, with a high frequency of multicase families and seropositivity in first-degree relatives. This study was undertaken to determine whether the serum cytokine profile of first-degree relatives of North American Native patients with RA differed from that of individuals with no family history of autoimmunity and whether there was an association with RA autoantibodies. METHODS: North American Native patients with RA (n = 105), their first-degree relatives (n = 273), healthy North American Native controls (n = 200), and Caucasian controls (n = 150) were studied. Serum levels of 42 cytokines were tested using a multiplex laser bead assay. Rheumatoid factor (RF), anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide 2 (anti-CCP-2), monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-l), and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) were tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and HLA-DRB1 alleles by specific primers. Discriminant analysis and logistic regression classified individuals based on their cytokine profile. RESULTS: The prevalence of RF (cutoff level predetermined to include 5% of Caucasian controls) and anti-CCP (cutoff level of ≥40 units) was, respectively, 88% and 81% in the RA patients, 34% and 9% in first-degree relatives, and 9% and 4% in North American Native controls; the prevalence of anti-CCP was 0% in Caucasian controls. Levels of most cytokines were highest in RA patients; 17 of 40 cytokines (43%) were significantly higher in first-degree relatives than in controls, including multiple proinflammatory cytokines. Discriminant analysis showed a notable distinction between the groups, with 85% classification accuracy. First-degree relatives had markedly higher MCP-1 and hsCRP levels than North American Native controls, but there was no consistent association with RA autoantibodies. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that levels of multiple cytokines and hsCRP are higher in first-degree relatives of North American Native patients with RA compared to individuals from a nonautoimmune background. These data suggest that elevated baseline cytokine levels may be part of the risk profile for developing RA.