Captopril's influence on Danio rerio embryonic development: Unveiling significant toxic outcomes at environmentally relevant concentrations.

Anticipating a global increase in cardiovascular diseases, there is an expected surge in the use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, notably captopril (CAP). This heightened usage raises significant environmental apprehensions, mainly due to limited knowledge regarding CAP's toxic effects on aquatic species. In response to these concerns, the current study aimed to tackle this knowledge gap by evaluating the potential influence of nominal concentrations of CAP (0.2-2000 µg/L) on the embryonic development of Danio rerio. The findings revealed that CAP at all concentrations, even at concentrations considered environmentally significant (0.2 and 2 µg/L), induced various malformations in the embryos, ultimately leading to their mortality. Main malformations included pericardial edema, craniofacial malformation, scoliosis, tail deformation, and yolk sac deformation. In addition, CAP significantly altered the antioxidant activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase across all concentrations. Simultaneously, it elevated lipid peroxidation levels, hydroperoxides, and carbonylic proteins in the embryos, eliciting a substantial oxidative stress response. Likewise, CAP, at all concentrations, exerted significant modulatory effects on the expression of genes associated with apoptosis (bax, bcl2, p53, and casp3), organogenesis (tbx2a, tbx2b, and irx3b), and ion exchange (slc12a1 and kcnj1) in Danio rerio embryos. Both augmentation and reduction in the expression levels of these genes characterized this modulation. The Pearson correlation analysis indicated a close association between oxidative damage biomarkers and the expression patterns of all examined genes with the elevated incidence of malformations and mortality in the embryos. In summary, it can be deduced that CAP poses a threat to aquatic species. Nevertheless, further research is imperative to enhance our understanding of the environmental implications of this pharmaceutical compound.

Eco-endocrinological dynamics: Unraveling dexamethasone's influence on the interrenal axis in juvenile carp Cyprinus carpio.

This study delves into the eco-endocrinological dynamics concerning the impact of dexamethasone (DXE) on the interrenal axis in juvenile carp, Cyprinus carpio. Through a comprehensive analysis, we investigated the effects of DXE exposure on oxidative stress, biochemical biomarkers, gene expression, and bioaccumulation within the interrenal axis. Results revealed a concentration-dependent escalation of cellular oxidation biomarkers, including 1) hydroperoxides content (HPC), 2) lipid peroxidation level (LPX), and 3) protein carbonyl content (PCC), indicative of heightened oxidative stress. Concurrently, the activity of critical antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT), significantly increased, underscoring the organism's response to oxidative insult. Notable alterations were observed in biochemical biomarkers, particularly Gamma-glutamyl-transpeptidase (GGT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, with GGT displaying a significant decrease with increasing DXE concentrations. Gene expression analysis revealed a significant upregulation of stress and inflammation response genes, as well as those associated with sensitivity to superoxide ion presence and calcium signaling, in response to DXE exposure. Furthermore, DXE demonstrated a concentration-dependent presence in interrenal tissue, with consistent bioconcentration factors observed across all concentrations tested. These findings shed light on the physiological and molecular responses of juvenile carp to DXE exposure, emphasizing the potential ecological implications of DXE contamination in aquatic environments. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for assessing the environmental impact of glucocorticoid pollutants and developing effective management strategies to mitigate their adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems.

Ecotoxicological evaluation of chitosan biopolymer films particles in adult zebrafish (Danio rerio): A comparative study with polystyrene microplastics.

To mitigate the environmental impact of microplastics (MPs), the scientific community has innovated sustainable and biodegradable polymers as viable alternatives to traditional plastics. Chitosan, the deacetylated form of chitin, stands as one of the most thoroughly investigated biopolymers and has garnered significant interest due to its versatile applications in both medical and cosmetic fields. Nevertheless, there is still a knowledge gap regarding the impact that chitosan biopolymer films (CBPF) may generate in aquatic organisms. In light of the foregoing, this study aimed to assess and compare the potential effects of CBPF on the gastrointestinal tract, gills, brain, and liver of Danio rerio against those induced by MPs. The findings revealed that both CBPF and MPs induced changes in the levels of oxidative stress biomarkers across all organs. However, it is essential to note that our star plots illustrate a tendency for CBPF to activate antioxidant enzymes and for MPs to produce oxidative damage. Regarding gene expression, our findings indicate that MPs led to an up-regulation in the expression of genes associated with apoptotic response (p53, casp3, cas9, bax, and bcl2) in all fish organs. Meanwhile, CBPF produced the same effect in genes related to antioxidant response (nrf1 and nrf2). Overall, our histological observations substantiated these effects, revealing the presence of plastic particles and tissue alterations in the gills and gastrointestinal tract of fish subjected to MPs. From these results, it can be concluded that CBPF does not represent a risk to fish after long exposure.

Assessing the impact of COVID-19 era drug combinations on hepatic functionality: A thorough investigation in adult Danio rerio.

Current and thorough information on the ecotoxicological consequences of pharmaceuticals is accessible globally. However, there remains a substantial gap in knowledge concerning the potentially toxic effects of COVID-19 used drugs, individually and combined, on aquatic organisms. Given the factors above, our investigation assumes pivotal importance in elucidating whether or not paracetamol, dexamethasone, metformin, and their tertiary mixtures might prompt histological impairment, oxidative stress, and apoptosis in the liver of zebrafish. The findings indicated that all treatments, except paracetamol, augmented the antioxidant activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAD), along with elevating the levels of oxidative biomarkers such as lipid peroxidation (LPX), hydroperoxides (HPC), and protein carbonyl content (PCC). Paracetamol prompted a reduction in the activities SOD and CAT and exhibited the most pronounced toxic response when compared to the other treatments. The gene expression patterns paralleled those of oxidative stress, with all treatments demonstrating overexpression of bax, bcl2, and p53. The above suggested a probable apoptotic response in the liver of the fish. Nevertheless, our histological examinations revealed that none of the treatments induced an apoptotic or inflammatory response in the hepatocytes. Instead, the observed tissue alterations encompassed leukocyte infiltration, sinusoidal dilatation, pyknosis, fatty degeneration, diffuse congestion, and vacuolization. In summary, the hepatic toxicity elicited by COVID-19 drugs in zebrafish was less pronounced than anticipated. This attenuation could be attributed to metformin's antioxidant and hormetic effects.

Health impact assessment after Danio rerio long-term exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of metformin and guanylurea.

The antidiabetic drug metformin (MET) and its metabolite guanylurea (GUA) have been frequently and ubiquitously detected in surface water. Consequently, there has been a consistent rise in studying the toxicity of MET and GUA in fish over the past decade. Nonetheless, it is noteworthy that no study has assessed the harmful effects both compounds might trigger on fish blood and organs after chronic exposure. Taking into consideration the data above, our research strived to accomplish two primary objectives: Firstly, to assess the effect of comparable concentrations of MET and GUA (1, 40, 100 µg/L) on the liver, gills, gut, and brain of Danio rerio after six months of flow-through exposure. Secondly, to compare the outcomes to identify which compound prompts more significant oxidative stress and apoptosis in organs and blood parameter alterations. Herein, findings indicate that both compounds induced oxidative damage and increased the expression of genes associated with apoptosis (bax, bcl2, p53, and casp3). Chronic exposure to MET and GUA also generated fluctuations in glucose, creatinine, phosphorus, liver enzymes, red and white blood count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit levels. The observed biochemical changes indicate that MET and GUA are responsible for inducing hepatic damage in fish, whereas hematological alterations suggest that both compounds cause anemia. Considering GUA altered to a more considerable extent the values of all endpoints compared to the control group, it is suggested transformation product GUA is more toxic than MET. Moreover, based on the above evidence, it can be inferred that a six-month exposure to MET and GUA can impair REDOX status and generate apoptosis in fish, adversely affecting their essential organs' functioning.

Acute exposure to fluoxetine leads to oxidative stress and hematological disorder in Danio rerio adults.

Fluoxetine (FLX), a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), is consistently introduced into the environment due to its ongoing consumption and inadequate removal by wastewater treatment plants. As a result, the scientific community has displayed a keen interest in investigating the potential toxicological effects associated with this medication. Nevertheless, there is a scarcity of available data regarding the impact of FLX on blood parameters. With this in mind, this study aimed to evaluate the potential toxicological consequences of FLX at environmentally significant concentrations (5, 16, and 40 ng/L) following a 96-hour acute exposure blood parameters in Danio rerio fish. Moreover, the investigation encompassed an assessment of oxidative stress parameters to determine whether the drug could induce disruptions in the REDOX status of the fish. The findings unveiled that FLX prompted the induction of oxidative stress in various organs of the fish, encompassing the liver, gut, brain, and gills. Notably, the gills and brain exhibited heightened susceptibility to the drug's effects compared to other organs. Furthermore, following acute exposure to FLX, there was an upregulation of antioxidant-related genes (sod, cat, gpx, nrf1, and nrf2), thereby providing additional evidence supporting the induction of oxidative stress in the organs of the fish. Lastly, FLX significantly impacted the customary values of various blood parameters, including glucose, blood urea nitrogen, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, red blood cell count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit. Thus, it can be inferred that FLX harmed the overall health status of the fish, resulting in the development of liver disease, anemia, and other associated illnesses.

Influence of sucralose, acesulfame-k, and their mixture on brain's fish: A study of behavior, oxidative damage, and acetylcholinesterase activity in Daniorerio.

Sucralose (SUC) and acesulfame-k (ACE-K) are widely used artificial sweeteners worldwide; however, they are frequently detected in aquatic environments due to their low metabolism and inadequate removal during wastewater treatment. The harmful effects of these compounds on hydrobionts have yet to be fully understood, as data on their toxicity is limited and inconclusive. This research aimed to determine the impact of SUC (50, 75, 125 µg/L) and ACE-K (50, 75, 125 µg/L), individually and in combination, on fish's swimming behavior, acetylcholinesterase activity, and oxidative stress response after four months of exposure. Following exposure, adult Danio rerio displayed anxiety-like behavior, as evidenced by increased freezing time and decreased swimming activity. Additionally, analysis of fish brain tissue revealed a disruption of REDOX homeostasis, leading to oxidative stress, which may be responsible for the observed inhibition of AChE activity. The results indicated that ACE-K was more toxic than SUC, and the mixture of both compounds produced a more detrimental effect than when each compound was administered alone. These findings highlight the hazardous impacts of SUC and ACE-K on fish in environmentally relevant concentrations, suggesting that these compounds should be added to the priority pollutant list.

Short-term exposure to dexamethasone at environmentally relevant concentrations impairs embryonic development in Cyprinus carpio: Bioconcentration and alteration of oxidative stress-related gene expression patterns.

In recent years and as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, the consumption of dexamethasone (DXE) has increased. This favors that this corticosteroid is highly released in aquatic environments, generating deleterious effects in aquatic organisms. The information on the toxic effects of DXE in the environment is still limited. Thus, the objective of this work was to determine whether DXE at short-term exposure can cause alterations to embryonic development and alteration of oxidative stress-related gene expression patterns in Cyprinus carpio. For this purpose, common carp embryos (2 hpf) were exposed to realistic concentrations of DXE until 96 hpf. Alterations to embryonic development were evaluated at 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hpf. In addition, oxidative stress in carp embryos at 72 and 96 hpf was evaluated by cellular oxidation biomarkers (lipoperoxidation level, hydroperoxide and carbonyl protein content) and antioxidant enzymes activities (superoxide dismutase and catalase). Oxidative stress-related gene expression (sod, cat and gpx1) was also evaluated. Our results showed that DXE concentrations above 35 ng/L are capable of producing alterations to embryonic development in 50 % of the embryo population. Furthermore, DXE was able to induce alterations such as scoliosis, hypopigmentation, craniofacial malformations, pericardial edema and growth retardation, leading to the death of half of the population at 50 ng/L of DXE. Concerning oxidative stress, the results demonstrated that DXE induce oxidative damage on the embryos of C. carpio. In conclusion, DXE is capable of altering embryonic development and generating oxidative stress in common carp C. carpio.

Acute exposure to realistic concentrations of Bisphenol-A trigger health damage in fish: Blood parameters, gene expression, oxidative stress.

Despite much information regarding BPA toxicity in fish and other aquatic organisms, data is still misleading as most studies have utilized concentrations several orders of magnitude higher than those typically found in the environment. As an illustration, eight of the ten studies investigating the impact of BPA on the biochemical and hematological parameters of fish have employed concentrations on the order of mg/L. Therefore, the results may not accurately represent the effects observed in the natural environment. Considering the information above, our study aimed to 1) determine whether or not realistic concentrations of BPA might alter the biochemical and blood parameters of Danio rerio and trigger an inflammatory response in the fish liver, brain, gills, and gut and 2) determine which organ could be more affected after exposure to this chemical. Findings pinpoint that realistic concentrations of BPA prompted a substantial increase in antioxidant and oxidant biomarkers in fish, triggering an oxidative stress response in all organs. Likewise, the expression of different genes related to inflammation and apoptosis response was significantly augmented in all organs. Our Pearson correlation shows gene expression was closely associated with the oxidative stress response. Regarding blood parameters, acute exposure to BPA generated biochemical and hematological parameters increased concentration-dependent. Thus, it can be concluded that BPA, at environmentally relevant concentrations, threatens aquatic species, as it prompts polychromasia and liver dysfunction in fish after acute exposure.

Integrative approach to elucidate the embryological effects of caffeine in Cyprinus carpio: Bioconcentration and alteration of oxidative stress-related gene expression patterns.

Caffeine (CAF) is an alkaloid, which acts as a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant drug. In recent years, CAF has been recurrently detected in water bodies, generating deleterious effects in aquatic organisms. The information on the toxic effects of CAF in the environment is still limited. Thus, the objective of this work was to determine whether CAF at environmentally relevant concentrations (CAF concentrations were selected based on studies on the worldwide occurrence of this compound and on the toxicity of CAF in aquatic species) is capable of inducing alterations to embryonic development and alteration of oxidative stress-related gene expression patterns in Cyprinus carpio. For this purpose, common carp embryos (2 hpf) were exposed to realistic concentrations of CAF until 96 hpf. Alterations to embryonic development and teratogenic effects were evaluated at 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hpf. In addition, oxidative stress in carp embryos at 72 and 96 hpf was evaluated by cellular oxidation biomarkers (lipoperoxidation level, hydroperoxide content and carbonyl protein content) and antioxidant enzymes activities (superoxide dismutase and catalase). Oxidative stress-related gene expression (sod, cat and gpx1) was also evaluated. Our results showed that CAF concentrations above 500 ng/L are capable of producing teratogenic effects. Furthermore, CAF was able to induce alterations such cardiac malformations, somite alterations, pericardial edema and chorda malformations. Concerning oxidative stress, the results demonstrated that CAF induce oxidative damage on the embryos of C. carpio. Our outcomes also showed up-regulations in genes related to antioxidant activity sod, cat and gpx by CAF exposure. In conclusion CAF at environmentally relevant concentrations is able to alter the embryonic development of common carp by the oxidative stress pathway. Based on the above evidence, it can be inferred that acute exposure to CAF can lead to a toxic response that significantly harms fish's health, adversely affecting their essential organs' functioning.

Realistic concentrations of Bisphenol-A trigger a neurotoxic response in the brain of zebrafish: Oxidative stress, behavioral impairment, acetylcholinesterase inhibition, and gene expression disruption.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a micro-pollutant found in various environmental matrices at concentrations as low as ng/L. Recent studies have shown that this compound can cause oxidative damage and neurotoxic effects in aquatic organisms. However, there is a lack of research investigating the effects of BPA at environmentally relevant concentrations. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the neurotoxic effects of acute BPA exposure (96 h) at environmentally relevant concentrations (220, 1180, and 1500 ng/L) in adult zebrafish (Danio rerio). The Novel Tank trial was used to evaluate fish swimming behavior, and our results indicate that exposure to 1500 ng/L of BPA reduced the total distance traveled and increased freezing time. Furthermore, the evaluation of biomarkers in the zebrafish brain revealed that BPA exposure led to the production of reactive oxygen species and increased acetylcholinesterase activity. Gene expression analysis also indicated the overexpression of mbp, α1-tubulin, and manf in the zebrafish brain. Based on our findings, we concluded that environmentally relevant concentrations of BPA can cause anxiety-like behavior and neurotoxic effects in adult zebrafish.

Chronic intake of an enriched diet with spirulina (Arthrospira maxima) alleviates the embryotoxic effects produced by realistic concentrations of tetracycline in Danio rerio.

Tetracycline (TC) is one of the most consumed antibiotics worldwide. Due to its high consumption, recent studies have reported its presence in aquatic environments and have assessed its effects on fish, algae, and daphniids. However, in most of those works, authors have tested TC toxicity at concentrations higher than the ones reported in the water matrix. Herein, we aimed to assess the likely embryotoxic and oxidative damage induced by environmentally relevant concentrations of TC in embryos of Danio rerio. Moreover, we seek to determine whether or not an enriched diet with spirulina can alleviate the embryotoxic damage produced by TC. Our findings indicated that TC at concentrations of 50 to 500 ng/L induced pericardial edema, tail deformities, and absence of head and fin in embryos after 96 h of exposure. Moreover, this antibiotic prompted the death of embryos in a concentration-dependent manner. According to our integrated biomarker response index, TC induced oxidative damage on Danio rerio embryos, as star plots showed a tendency to lipoperoxidation, hydroperoxides, and protein carbonyl content. Spirulina reduced the toxicity of TC by diminishing the levels of oxidative damage biomarkers, which resulted in a decrease in the rate of death and malformed embryos. Overall, TC at concentrations of ng/L prompted oxidative stress and embryotoxicity in the early life stages of Danio rerio; nonetheless, the algae spirulina was able to reduce the severity of those effects.

Polystyrene microplastics mitigate the embryotoxic damage of metformin and guanylurea in Danio rerio.

Microplastics (MPs) alone may endanger the health and fitness of aquatic species through different mechanisms. However, the harmful effects of these when mixed with other emerging contaminants require additional research. Herein, we aimed to determine whether a mixture of MPs with metformin (MET) or guanylurea (GUA) might induce embryotoxicity and oxidative stress in Danio rerio. Upon exposure to mixtures, our results showed MPs reduced the mortality rate of MET and GUA in embryos. Moreover, the severity and the rate of malformations were also decreased in all mixtures with MPs. Concerning oxidative stress, our findings indicated MET, GUA, MPs, and the mixtures increased the levels of lipoperoxidation, hydroperoxide content, and protein carbonyl content in D. rerio larvae. However, the oxidative damage induced in all mixtures was lower than that produced by both drugs alone. Thus, it is likely that the accumulation of MPs avoided the entrance of MET and GUA into the embryos. Once the embryo hatched, MPs did only remain accumulated in the yolk sac of larvae and did not translocate to other organs. Our risk assessment analysis confirmed that MPs shrunk the damage produced by MET and GUA. In a nutshell, MPs mitigate the embryotoxic damage of metformin and guanylurea in D. rerio by blocking their entrance.

Chronic exposure to realistic concentrations of metformin prompts a neurotoxic response in Danio rerio adults.

Metformin (MET) is among the most consumed drugs around the world, and thus, it is considered the uppermost drug in mass discharged into water settings. Nonetheless, data about the deleterious consequences of MET on water organisms are still scarce and require further investigation. Herein, we aimed to establish whether or not chronic exposure to MET (1, 20, and 40 µg/L) may alter the swimming behavior and induce neurotoxicity in Danio rerio adults. After 4 months of exposure, MET-exposed fish exhibited less swimming activity when compared to control fish. Moreover, compared with the control group, MET significantly inhibited the activity of AChE and induced oxidative damage in the brain of fish. Concerning gene expression, MET significantly upregulated the expression of Nrf1, Nrf2, BAX, p53, BACE1, APP, PSEN1, and downregulated CASP3 and CASP9. Although MET did not overexpress the CASP3 gene, we saw a meaningful rise in the activity of this enzyme in the blood of fish exposed to MET compared to the control group, which we then confirmed by a high number of apoptotic cells in the TUNEL assay. Our findings demonstrate that chronic exposure to MET may impair fish swimming behavior, making them more vulnerable to predators.

Multi-biomarker approach and IBR index to evaluate the effects of bisphenol A on embryonic stages of zebrafish (Danio rerio).

This study assessed the effects of Bisphenol A in embryonic stages of zebrafish, applying an IBR multi-biomarker approach that included alterations in growth and oxidative status and relates it with the expression of Nrf1, Nrf2, Wnt3a, Wnt8a, COX-2, Qdpra, and DKK1 genes. For this purpose, we exposed zebrafish embryos to eight environmentally relevant concentrations of BPA (220, 380, 540, 700, 860, 1180, 1340, and 1500 ng L-1) until 96 h post-fertilization. Our results show that BPA induces several malformations in embryos (developmental delay, hypopigmentation, tail malformations, and on), leading to their death. The LC50, EC50 of malformations, and teratogenic index (TI) were 1234.60 ng L-1, 987.77 ng L-1, and 1.25, respectively; thus, this emerging contaminant is teratogenic. Regarding oxidative stress and gene expression, we demonstrated BPA altered oxidative status and the gene expression in embryos of Danio rerio.

Multi-biomarker approach to evaluate the neurotoxic effects of environmentally relevant concentrations of phenytoin on adult zebrafish Danio rerio.

Several studies have reported the presence of phenytoin (PHE) in wastewater treatment plant effluents, hospital effluents, surface water, and even drinking water. However, published studies on the toxic effects of PHE at environmentally relevant concentrations in aquatic organisms are scarce. The present study aimed to determine the effect of three environmentally relevant concentrations of PHE (25, 282, and 1500 ng L-1) on behavioral parameters using the novel tank test. Moreover, we also aimed to determine whether or not these concentrations of PHE may impair acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and oxidative status in the brain of Danio rerio adults. Behavioral responses suggested an anxiolytic effect in PHE-exposed organisms, mainly observed in organisms exposed to 1500 ng L-1, with a significant decrease in fish mobility and a significant increase in activity at the top of the tank. Besides the behavioral impairment, PHE-exposed fish also showed a significant increase in the levels of lipid peroxidation, hydroperoxides, and protein carbonyl content compared to the control group. Moreover, a significant increase in brain AChE levels was observed in fish exposed to 282 and 1500 ng L-1. The results obtained in the present study show that PHE triggers a harmful response in the brain of fish, which in turn generates fish have an anxiety-like behavior.

Acute exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of sucralose disrupts embryonic development and leads to an oxidative stress response in Danio rerio.

Sucralose (SUC) is the most consumed artificial sweetener worldwide, not metabolized by the human body, and barely eliminated from water in wastewater treatment plants. Although different studies have reported high concentrations of this sweetener in aquatic environments, limited to no information is known about the toxic effects this drug may produce over water organisms. Moreover, most of the current studies have used non-environmentally relevant concentrations of SUC for these effects. Herein, we aimed to evaluate the harmful effects that environmentally relevant concentrations of SUC may induce in the early life stages of Danio rerio. According to our results, SUC altered the embryonic development of D. rerio, producing several malformations that led to their death. The major malformations were scoliosis, pericardial edema, yolk deformation, and tail malformation. However, embryos also got craniofacial malformations, eye absence, fin absence, dwarfism, delay of the hatching process, and hypopigmentation. SUC also generated an oxidative stress response in the embryos characterized by an increase in the levels of lipid peroxidation, hydroperoxides, and carbonyl proteins. To overcome this oxidative stress response, we observed a significant increase in the levels of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase. Moreover, a significant boost in the expression of antioxidant defense-related genes, Nuclear respiratory factor 1a (Nrf1a) and Nuclear respiratory factor 2a (Nrf2a), was also observed at all concentrations. Concerning apoptosis-related genes, we observed the expression of Caspase 3 (CASP3) and Caspase 9 (CASP9) was increased in a concentration-dependent manner. Overall, we conclude environmentally relevant concentrations of SUC are harmful to the early life stages of fish as they produce malformations, oxidative stress, and increased gene expression of apoptosis-related genes on embryos.

Fluoxetine-induced neurotoxicity at environmentally relevant concentrations in adult zebrafish Danio rerio.

Fluoxetine (FLX) exerts its therapeutic effect by inhibiting the presynaptic reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Nonetheless, at high concentrations of this drug, adverse effects occur in the brain of exposed organisms. Bearing this into account, the objective of this study was to evaluate the neurotoxic effects of the fluoxetine through the evaluation of behavior (Novel tank test), determination of oxidative stress, and determination of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in adult zebrafish Danio rerio. For this purpose, Danio rerio adults were exposed to three environmentally relevant concentrations (5, 10, 16 ng L-1) of FLX for 96 h. Our results demonstrate fish presented a significant disruption in their behavior, as they remained long-lasting time frozen at the top of the tank. Since we observed a significant reduction of AChE activity in the brain of fish, we believe the above described anxiety-like state is the result of this enzyme impairment. Moreover, as FLX-exposed fish showed a significant increase in the levels of oxidative damage biomarkers, we suggest this AChE disruption is associated with the oxidative stress response fish exhibited. Based on our findings, we believe the environmentally relevant concentration of FLX alters the redox status of the brain, impairing this way the behavior of fish and making them more vulnerable to predation.

Brain damage induced by contaminants released in a hospital from Mexico: Evaluation of swimming behavior, oxidative stress, and acetylcholinesterase in zebrafish (Danio rerio).

Several studies have indicated that hospital effluents can produce genotoxic and mutagenic effects, cytotoxicity, hematological and histological alterations, embryotoxicity, and oxidative stress in diverse water organisms, but research on the neurotoxic effects hospital wastewater materials can generate in fish is still scarce. To fill the above-described knowledge gap, this study aimed to determine whether the exposure of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio) to several proportions (0.1%, 2.5%, 3.5%) of a hospital effluent can disrupt behavior or impair redox status and acetylcholinesterase content in the brain. After 96 h of exposure to the effluent, we observed a decrease in total distance traveled and an increase in frozen time compared to the control group. Moreover, we also observed a significant increase in the levels of reactive oxygen species in the brains of the fish, especially in hydroperoxide and protein carbonyl content, relative to the control group. Our results also demonstrated that hospital effluents significantly inhibited the activity of the AChE enzyme in the brains of the fish. Our Pearson correlation demonstrated that the response to acetylcholinesterase at the lowest proportions (0.1% and 2.5%) is positively related to the oxidative stress response and the behavioral changes observed. The cohort of our studies demonstrated that the exposure of adult zebrafish to a hospital effluent induced oxidative stress and decreased acetylcholinesterase activity in the brain of these freshwater organisms, which can lead to alterations in their behavior.