Mitochondrial alterations in fibroblasts from sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients correlate with AD-related clinical hallmarks.

Mitochondrial dysfunctions are key features of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The occurrence of these disturbances in the peripheral cells of AD patients and their potential correlation with disease progression are underinvestigated. We studied mitochondrial structure, function and mitophagy in fibroblasts from healthy volunteers and AD patients at the prodromal (AD-MCI) or demented (AD-D) stages. We carried out correlation studies with clinical cognitive scores, namely, (i) Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and (ii) Dementia Rating-Scale Sum of Boxes (CDR-SOB), and with (iii) amyloid beta (Aß) plaque burden (PiB-PET imaging) and (iv) the accumulation of peripheral amyloid precursor protein C-terminal fragments (APP-CTFs). We revealed alterations in mitochondrial structure as well as specific mitochondrial dysfunction signatures in AD-MCI and AD-D fibroblasts and revealed that defective mitophagy and autophagy are linked to impaired lysosomal activity in AD-D fibroblasts. We reported significant correlations of a subset of these dysfunctions with cognitive decline, AD-related clinical hallmarks and peripheral APP-CTFs accumulation. This study emphasizes the potential use of peripheral cells for investigating AD pathophysiology.

The amyloid precursor protein and its derived fragments concomitantly contribute to the alterations of mitochondrial transport machinery in Alzheimer's disease.

Mitochondria dysfunctions and mitophagy failure have been associated with several Alzheimer's disease (AD) related molecular actors including amyloid beta (Aß) and recently the amyloid precursor protein-C terminal fragments (APP-CTFs). The efficacy of the mitophagy process in neurons relies on regulated mitochondrial transport along axons involving a complex molecular machinery. The contribution of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and its derived fragments to the mitochondrial transport machinery alterations in AD have not been investigated before. We report herein a change of the expression of mitochondrial transport proteins (SNPH and Miro1), motor adapters (TRANK1 and TRAK2), and components of the dynein and kinesin motors (i.e., IC1,2 and Kif5 (A, B, C) isoforms) by endogenous APP and by overexpression of APP carrying the familial Swedish mutation (APPswe). We show that APP-CTFs and Aß concomitantly regulate the expression of a set of transport proteins as demonstrated in APPswe cells treated with ß- and γ-secretase inhibitors and in cells Knock-down for presenilin 1 and 2. We further report the impact of APP-CTFs on the expression of transport proteins in AAV-injected C99 mice brains. Our data also indicate that both Aß oligomers (Aßo) and APP-CTFs impair the colocalization of mitochondria and transport proteins. This has been demonstrated in differentiated SH-SY5Y naive cells treated with Aßo and in differentiated SH-SY5Y and murine primary neurons expressing APPswe and treated with the γ-secretase inhibitor. Importantly, we uncover that the expression of a set of transport proteins is modulated in a disease-dependent manner in 3xTgAD mice and in human sporadic AD brains. This study highlights molecular mechanisms underlying mitochondrial transport defects in AD that likely contribute to mitophagy failure and disease progression.

Modifications of the endosomal compartment in fibroblasts from sporadic Alzheimer's disease patients are associated with cognitive impairment.

Morphological alterations of the endosomal compartment have been widely described in post-mortem brains from Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients and subjects with Down syndrome (DS) who are at high risk for AD. Immunostaining with antibodies against endosomal markers such as Early Endosome Antigen 1 (EEA1) revealed increased size of EEA1-positive puncta. In DS, peripheral cells such as peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and fibroblasts, share similar phenotype even in the absence of AD. We previously found that PBMCs from AD patients have larger EEA1-positive puncta, correlating with brain amyloid load. Here we analysed the endosomal compartment of fibroblasts from a very well characterised cohort of AD patients (IMABio3) who underwent thorough clinical, imaging and biomarkers assessments. Twenty-one subjects were included (7 AD with mild cognitive impairment (AD-MCI), 7 AD with dementia (AD-D) and 7 controls) who had amyloid-PET at baseline (PiB) and neuropsychological tests at baseline and close to skin biopsy. Fibroblasts isolated from skin biopsies were immunostained with anti-EEA1 antibody and imaged using a spinning disk microscope. Endosomal compartment ultrastructure was also analysed by electron microscopy. All fibroblast lines were genotyped and their AD risk factors identified. Our results show a trend to an increased EEA1-positive puncta volume in fibroblasts from AD-D as compared to controls (p.adj = 0.12) and reveal enhanced endosome area in fibroblasts from AD-MCI and AD-AD versus controls. Larger puncta size correlated with PiB retention in different brain areas and with worse cognitive scores at the time of biopsy as well as faster decline from baseline to the time of biopsy. Finally, we identified three genetic risk factors for AD (ABCA1, COX7C and MYO15A) that were associated with larger EEA1 puncta volume. In conclusion, the endosomal compartment in fibroblasts could be used as cellular peripheral biomarker for both amyloid deposition and cognitive decline in AD patients.

Mitophagy in Alzheimer's disease: Molecular defects and therapeutic approaches.

Mitochondrial dysfunctions are central players in Alzheimer's disease (AD). In addition, impairments in mitophagy, the process of selective mitochondrial degradation by autophagy leading to a gradual accumulation of defective mitochondria, have also been reported to occur in AD. We provide an updated overview of the recent discoveries and advancements on mitophagic molecular dysfunctions in AD-derived fluids and cells as well as in AD brains. We discuss studies using AD cellular and animal models that have unraveled the contribution of relevant AD-related proteins (Tau, Aß, APP-derived fragments and APOE) in mitophagy failure. In accordance with the important role of impaired mitophagy in AD, we report on various therapeutic strategies aiming at stimulating mitophagy in AD and we summarize the benefits of these potential therapeutic strategies in human clinical trials.

Primary brain cell infection by Toxoplasma gondii reveals the extent and dynamics of parasite differentiation and its impact on neuron biology.

Toxoplasma gondii is a eukaryotic parasite that forms latent cysts in the brain of immunocompetent individuals. The latent parasite infection of the immune-privileged central nervous system is linked to most complications. With no drug currently available to eliminate the latent cysts in the brain of infected hosts, the consequences of neurons' long-term infection are unknown. It has long been known that T. gondii specifically differentiates into a latent form (bradyzoite) in neurons, but how the infected neuron responds to the infection remains to be elucidated. We have established a new in vitro model resulting in the production of mature bradyzoite cysts in brain cells. Using dual, host and parasite RNA-seq, we characterized the dynamics of differentiation of the parasite, revealing the involvement of key pathways in this process. Moreover, we identified how the infected brain cells responded to the parasite infection revealing the drastic changes that take place. We showed that neuronal-specific pathways are strongly affected, with synapse signalling being particularly affected, especially glutamatergic synapse signalling. The establishment of this new in vitro model allows investigating both the dynamics of parasite differentiation and the specific response of neurons to long-term infection by this parasite.

Alzheimer's genetic risk factor FERMT2 (Kindlin-2) controls axonal growth and synaptic plasticity in an APP-dependent manner.

Although APP metabolism is being intensively investigated, a large fraction of its modulators is yet to be characterized. In this context, we combined two genome-wide high-content screenings to assess the functional impact of miRNAs and genes on APP metabolism and the signaling pathways involved. This approach highlighted the involvement of FERMT2 (or Kindlin-2), a genetic risk factor of Alzheimer's disease (AD), as a potential key modulator of axon guidance, a neuronal process that depends on the regulation of APP metabolism. We found that FERMT2 directly interacts with APP to modulate its metabolism, and that FERMT2 underexpression impacts axonal growth, synaptic connectivity, and long-term potentiation in an APP-dependent manner. Last, the rs7143400-T allele, which is associated with an increased AD risk and localized within the 3'UTR of FERMT2, induced a downregulation of FERMT2 expression through binding of miR-4504 among others. This miRNA is mainly expressed in neurons and significantly overexpressed in AD brains compared to controls. Altogether, our data provide strong evidence for a detrimental effect of FERMT2 underexpression in neurons and insight into how this may influence AD pathogenesis.

Accumulation of amyloid precursor protein C-terminal fragments triggers mitochondrial structure, function, and mitophagy defects in Alzheimer's disease models and human brains.

Several lines of recent evidence indicate that the amyloid precursor protein-derived C-terminal fragments (APP-CTFs) could correspond to an etiological trigger of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. Altered mitochondrial homeostasis is considered an early event in AD development. However, the specific contribution of APP-CTFs to mitochondrial structure, function, and mitophagy defects remains to be established. Here, we demonstrate in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells expressing either APP Swedish mutations, or the ß-secretase-derived APP-CTF fragment (C99) combined with ß- and γ-secretase inhibition, that APP-CTFs accumulation independently of Aß triggers excessive mitochondrial morphology alteration (i.e., size alteration and cristae disorganization) associated with enhanced mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production. APP-CTFs accumulation also elicit basal mitophagy failure illustrated by enhanced conversion of LC3, accumulation of LC3-I and/or LC3-II, non-degradation of SQSTM1/p62, inconsistent Parkin and PINK1 recruitment to mitochondria, enhanced levels of membrane and matrix mitochondrial proteins, and deficient fusion of mitochondria with lysosomes. We confirm the contribution of APP-CTFs accumulation to morphological mitochondria alteration and impaired basal mitophagy in vivo in young 3xTgAD transgenic mice treated with γ-secretase inhibitor as well as in adeno-associated-virus-C99 injected mice. Comparison of aged 2xTgAD and 3xTgAD mice indicates that, besides APP-CTFs, an additional contribution of Aß to late-stage mitophagy activation occurs. Importantly, we report on mitochondrial accumulation of APP-CTFs in human post-mortem sporadic AD brains correlating with mitophagy failure molecular signature. Since defective mitochondria homeostasis plays a pivotal role in AD pathogenesis, targeting mitochondrial dysfunctions and/or mitophagy by counteracting early APP-CTFs accumulation may represent relevant therapeutic interventions in AD.

Molecular Dysfunctions of Mitochondria-Associated Membranes (MAMs) in Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative pathology characterized by a progressive decline of cognitive functions. Alteration of various signaling cascades affecting distinct subcellular compartment functions and their communication likely contribute to AD progression. Among others, the alteration of the physical association between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria, also reffered as mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs), impacts various cellular housekeeping functions such as phospholipids-, glucose-, cholesterol-, and fatty-acid-metabolism, as well as calcium signaling, which are all altered in AD. Our review describes the physical and functional proteome crosstalk between the ER and mitochondria and highlights the contribution of distinct molecular components of MAMs to mitochondrial and ER dysfunctions in AD progression. We also discuss potential strategies targeting MAMs to improve mitochondria and ER functions in AD.

Pyk2 overexpression in postsynaptic neurons blocks amyloid ß1-42-induced synaptotoxicity in microfluidic co-cultures.

Recent meta-analyses of genome-wide association studies identified a number of genetic risk factors of Alzheimer's disease; however, little is known about the mechanisms by which they contribute to the pathological process. As synapse loss is observed at the earliest stage of Alzheimer's disease, deciphering the impact of Alzheimer's risk genes on synapse formation and maintenance is of great interest. In this article, we report a microfluidic co-culture device that physically isolates synapses from pre- and postsynaptic neurons and chronically exposes them to toxic amyloid ß peptides secreted by model cell lines overexpressing wild-type or mutated (V717I) amyloid precursor protein. Co-culture with cells overexpressing mutated amyloid precursor protein exposed the synapses of primary hippocampal neurons to amyloid ß1-42 molecules at nanomolar concentrations and induced a significant decrease in synaptic connectivity, as evidenced by distance-based assignment of postsynaptic puncta to presynaptic puncta. Treating the cells with antibodies that target different forms of amyloid ß suggested that low molecular weight oligomers are the likely culprit. As proof of concept, we demonstrate that overexpression of protein tyrosine kinase 2 beta-an Alzheimer's disease genetic risk factor involved in synaptic plasticity and shown to decrease in Alzheimer's disease brains at gene expression and protein levels-selectively in postsynaptic neurons is protective against amyloid ß1-42-induced synaptotoxicity. In summary, our lab-on-a-chip device provides a physiologically relevant model of Alzheimer's disease-related synaptotoxicity, optimal for assessing the impact of risk genes in pre- and postsynaptic compartments.

Genome-wide, high-content siRNA screening identifies the Alzheimer's genetic risk factor FERMT2 as a major modulator of APP metabolism.

Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have identified 19 susceptibility loci for Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, understanding how these genes are involved in the pathophysiology of AD is one of the main challenges of the "post-GWAS" era. At least 123 genes are located within the 19 susceptibility loci; hence, a conventional approach (studying the genes one by one) would not be time- and cost-effective. We therefore developed a genome-wide, high-content siRNA screening approach and used it to assess the functional impact of gene under-expression on APP metabolism. We found that 832 genes modulated APP metabolism. Eight of these genes were located within AD susceptibility loci. Only FERMT2 (a ß3-integrin co-activator) was also significantly associated with a variation in cerebrospinal fluid Aß peptide levels in 2886 AD cases. Lastly, we showed that the under-expression of FERMT2 increases Aß peptide production by raising levels of mature APP at the cell surface and facilitating its recycling. Taken as a whole, our data suggest that FERMT2 modulates the AD risk by regulating APP metabolism and Aß peptide production.

ADAM30 Downregulates APP-Linked Defects Through Cathepsin D Activation in Alzheimer's Disease.

Although several ADAMs (A disintegrin-like and metalloproteases) have been shown to contribute to the amyloid precursor protein (APP) metabolism, the full spectrum of metalloproteases involved in this metabolism remains to be established. Transcriptomic analyses centred on metalloprotease genes unraveled a 50% decrease in ADAM30 expression that inversely correlates with amyloid load in Alzheimer's disease brains. Accordingly, in vitro down- or up-regulation of ADAM30 expression triggered an increase/decrease in Aß peptides levels whereas expression of a biologically inactive ADAM30 (ADAM30(mut)) did not affect Aß secretion. Proteomics/cell-based experiments showed that ADAM30-dependent regulation of APP metabolism required both cathepsin D (CTSD) activation and APP sorting to lysosomes. Accordingly, in Alzheimer-like transgenic mice, neuronal ADAM30 over-expression lowered Aß42 secretion in neuron primary cultures, soluble Aß42 and amyloid plaque load levels in the brain and concomitantly enhanced CTSD activity and finally rescued long term potentiation alterations. Our data thus indicate that lowering ADAM30 expression may favor Aß production, thereby contributing to Alzheimer's disease development.