Functional characteristics of NaS2, a placenta-specific Na+-coupled transporter for sulfate and oxyanions of the micronutrients selenium and chromium.

NaS2 is a Na+-coupled transporter for sulfate that belongs to the SLC13 gene family. This transporter was originally cloned from high endothelial venule endothelial cells, but nothing is known about the functional characteristics of this transporter except that it transports sulfate in a Na+-coupled manner. Northern blot analysis indicates that NaS2 is expressed most robustly in placenta. In the present study, we cloned NaS2 from rat placenta and characterized its transport function in detail using the Xenopus laevis oocyte expression system. Rat NaS2 consists of 629 amino acids and is highly similar to human NaS2. In situ hybridization studies with mouse placental sections show that NaS2 transcripts are expressed primarily in trophoblasts of the labyrinth zone. The expression of the transporter is confirmed in primary cultures of trophoblasts isolated from human placenta. When expressed in X. laevis oocytes, rat NaS2 mediates Na+-coupled transport of sulfate. The transport of sulfate is inhibited by oxyanions of selenium, chromium, arsenic, molybdenum, and phosphorous, suggesting that the transporter may mediate the transport of these oxyanions in addition to sulfate. The Kt for sulfate is 153+/-30 microM and the Na+:sulfate stoichiometry is 3:1. The transport process is electrogenic as evidenced from the inhibition of the uptake process by K+-induced depolarization. We conclude that NaS2 is a placenta-specific Na+-coupled, electrogenic, transporter for sulfate expressed in trophoblasts and that it is also responsible for the transport of oxyanions of the micronutrients selenium and chromium.

Cloning and functional characterization of a new subtype of the amino acid transport system N.

We have cloned a new subtype of the amino acid transport system N2 (SN2 or second subtype of system N) from rat brain. Rat SN2 consists of 471 amino acids and belongs to the recently identified glutamine transporter gene family that consists of system N and system A. Rat SN2 exhibits 63% identity with rat SN1. It also shows considerable sequence identity (50-56%) with the members of the amino acid transporter A subfamily. In the rat, SN2 mRNA is most abundant in the liver but is detectable in the brain, lung, stomach, kidney, testis, and spleen. When expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and in mammalian cells, rat SN2 mediates Na(+)-dependent transport of several neutral amino acids, including glycine, asparagine, alanine, serine, glutamine, and histidine. The transport process is electrogenic, Li(+) tolerant, and pH sensitive. The transport mechanism involves the influx of Na(+) and amino acids coupled to the efflux of H(+), resulting in intracellular alkalization. Proline, alpha-(methylamino)isobutyric acid, and anionic and cationic amino acids are not recognized by rat SN2.

Bilateral talon cusps in primary teeth: clinical significance and treatment.

Bilateral primary talon cusps are uncommon. This case report documents two new cases of bilateral talon cusps in the primary dentition. The clinical features, radiographic characteristics, and differential diagnosis of this developmental anomaly are described. The terminology, epidemiological data, potential complications, and various modes of treatment are reviewed and discussed. A new classification system was proposed. The dental anomalies of these two cases were not associated with any other somatic or dental abnormality. The general prognosis of this abnormality is satisfactorily good. However, the dentist needs to have early recognition of this anomaly in order to provide timely treatment in order to prevent potential complications.

Structure and function of ATA3, a new subtype of amino acid transport system A, primarily expressed in the liver and skeletal muscle.

To date, two different transporters that are capable of transporting alpha-(methylamino)isobutyric acid, the specific substrate for amino acid transport system A, have been cloned. These two transporters are known as ATA1 and ATA2. We have cloned a third transporter that is able to transport the system A-specific substrate. This new transporter, cloned from rat skeletal muscle and designated rATA3, consists of 547 amino acids and has a high degree of homology to rat ATA1 (47% identity) and rat ATA2 (57% identity). rATA3 mRNA is present only in the liver and skeletal muscle. When expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, rATA3 mediates the transport of alpha-[(14)C](methylamino)isobutyric acid and [(3)H]alanine. With the two-microelectrode voltage clamp technique, we have shown that exposure of rATA3-expressing oocytes to neutral, short-chain aliphatic amino acids induces inward currents. The amino acid-induced current is Na(+)-dependent and pH-dependent. Analysis of the currents with alanine as the substrate has shown that the K(0. 5) for alanine (i.e., concentration of the amino acid yielding half-maximal current) is 4.2+/-0.1 mM and that the Na(+):alanine stoichiometry is 1:1.

cDNA structure, genomic organization, and promoter analysis of the mouse intestinal peptide transporter PEPT1.

We describe in this report the cDNA structure, functional characteristics, genomic organization, and promoter analysis of the mouse H(+)-coupled low-affinity peptide transporter PEPT1. The mouse PEPT1 cDNA cloned from a kidney cDNA library is approximately 3.1 kb long and encodes a protein of 709 amino acids. When expressed heterologously in mammalian cells and in Xenopus laevis oocytes, mouse PEPT1 mediates H(+)-coupled electrogenic transport of the dipeptide glycylsarcosine. The mouse pept1 gene, cloned from a genomic DNA library in bacterial artificial chromosome, is approximately 38 kb long and consists of 23 exons and 22 introns. 5'-Rapid amplification of cDNA ends with poly(A)(+) RNA from mouse intestine has identified the transcription start site that lies 31 bp upstream of the translation start site. The promoter region upstream of the transcription start site does not contain the TATA box but possesses three GC boxes which are the binding sites for the transcription activator SP1. Functional analysis of the promoter region using the luciferase reporter assay in Caco-2 cells (a human intestinal cell line that express PEPT1 constitutively) and five different 5'-deletion fragments of the promoter has shown that essential promoter/enhancer elements are present within 1140 bp upstream of the transcription start site.

Transport of N-acetylaspartate by the Na(+)-dependent high-affinity dicarboxylate transporter NaDC3 and its relevance to the expression of the transporter in the brain.

N-Acetylaspartate is a highly specific marker for neurons and is present at high concentrations in the central nervous system. It is not present at detectable levels anywhere else in the body other than brain. Glial cells express a high-affinity transporter for N-acetylaspartate, but the molecular identity of the transporter has not been established. The transport of N-acetylaspartate into glial cells is obligatory for its intracellular hydrolysis, a process intimately involved in myelination. N-Acetylaspartate is a dicarboxylate structurally related to succinate. We investigated in the present study the ability of NaDC3, a Na(+)-coupled high-affinity dicarboxylate transporter, to transport N-acetylaspartate. The cloned rat and human NaDC3s were found to transport N-acetylaspartate in a Na(+)-coupled manner in two different heterologous expression systems. The Michaelis-Menten constant for N-acetylaspartate was approximately 60 microM for rat NaDC3 and approximately 250 microM for human NaDC3. The transport process was electrogenic and the Na(+):N-acetylaspartate stoichiometry was 3:1. The functional expression of NaDC3 in the brain was demonstrated by in situ hybridization and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction as well as by isolation of a full-length functional NaDC3 from a rat brain cDNA library. In addition, the expression of a Na(+)-coupled high-affinity dicarboxylate transporter and the interaction of the transporter with N-acetylaspartate were demonstrable in rat primary astrocyte cultures. These studies establish NaDC3 as the transporter responsible for the Na(+)-coupled transport of N-acetylaspartate in the brain. This transporter is likely to be an essential component in the metabolic role of N-acetylaspartate in the process of myelination.

Structure, function, and genomic organization of human Na(+)-dependent high-affinity dicarboxylate transporter.

We have cloned and functionally characterized the human Na(+)-dependent high-affinity dicarboxylate transporter (hNaDC3) from placenta. The hNaDC3 cDNA codes for a protein of 602 amino acids with 12 transmembrane domains. When expressed in mammalian cells, the cloned transporter mediates the transport of succinate in the presence of Na(+) [concentration of substrate necessary for half-maximal transport (K(t)) for succinate = 20+/-1 microM]. Dimethylsuccinate also interacts with hNaDC3. The Na(+)-to-succinate stoichiometry is 3:1 and concentration of Na(+) necessary for half-maximal transport (K(Na(+))(0.5)) is 49+/-1 mM as determined by uptake studies with radiolabeled succinate. When expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, hNaDC3 induces Na(+)-dependent inward currents in the presence of succinate and dimethylsuccinate. At a membrane potential of -50 mV, K(Suc)(0.5) is 102+/-20 microM and K(Na(+))(0.5) is 22+/-4 mM as determined by the electrophysiological approach. Simultaneous measurements of succinate-evoked charge transfer and radiolabeled succinate uptake in hNaDC3-expressing oocytes indicate a charge-to-succinate ratio of 1:1 for the transport process, suggesting a Na(+)-to-succinate stoichiometry of 3:1. pH titration of citrate-induced currents shows that hNaDC3 accepts preferentially the divalent anionic form of citrate as a substrate. Li(+) inhibits succinate-induced currents in the presence of Na(+). Functional analysis of rat-human and human-rat NaDC3 chimeric transporters indicates that the catalytic domain of the transporter lies in the carboxy-terminal half of the protein. The human NaDC3 gene is located on chromosome 20q12-13.1, as evidenced by fluorescent in situ hybridization. The gene is >80 kbp long and consists of 13 exons and 12 introns.

Transport of valganciclovir, a ganciclovir prodrug, via peptide transporters PEPT1 and PEPT2.

In clinical trials, valganciclovir, the valyl ester of ganciclovir, has been shown to enhance the bioavailability of ganciclovir when taken orally by patients with cytomegalovirus infection. We investigated the role of the intestinal peptide transporter PEPT1 in this process by comparing the interaction of ganciclovir and valganciclovir with the transporter in different experimental systems. We also studied the interaction of these two compounds with the renal peptide transporter PEPT2. In cell culture model systems using Caco-2 cells for PEPT1 and SKPT cells for PEPT2, valganciclovir inhibited glycylsarcosine transport mediated by PEPT1 and PEPT2 with K(i) values (inhibition constant) of 1.68+/-0.30 and 0.043+/- 0.005 mM, respectively. The inhibition by valganciclovir was competitive in both cases. Ganciclovir did not interact with either transporter. Similar studies done with cloned PEPT1 and PEPT2 in heterologous expression systems yielded comparable results. The transport of valganciclovir via PEPT1 was investigated directly in PEPT1-expressing Xenopus laevis oocytes with an electrophysiological approach. Valganciclovir, but not ganciclovir, induced inward currents in PEPT1-expressing oocytes. These results demonstrate that the increased bioavailability of valganciclovir is related to its recognition as a substrate by the intestinal peptide transporter PEPT1. This prodrug is also recognized by the renal peptide transporter PEPT2 with high affinity.

Primary structure, genomic organization, and functional and electrogenic characteristics of human system N 1, a Na+- and H+-coupled glutamine transporter.

We have cloned the human Na(+)- and H(+)-coupled amino acid transport system N (hSN1) from HepG2 liver cells and investigated its functional characteristics. Human SN1 protein consists of 504 amino acids and shows high homology to rat SN1 and rat brain glutamine transporter (GlnT). When expressed in mammalian cells, the transport function of human SN1 could be demonstrated with glutamine as the substrate in the presence of LiCl (instead of NaCl) and cysteine. The transport activity was saturable, pH-sensitive, and specific for glutamine, histidine, asparagine, and alanine. Analysis of Li(+) activation kinetics showed a Li(+):glutamine stoichiometry of 2:1. When expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, the transport of glutamine or asparagine via human SN1 was associated with inward currents under voltage-clamped conditions. The transport function, monitored as glutamine- or asparagine-induced currents, was saturable, Na(+)-dependent, Li(+)-tolerant, and pH-sensitive. The transport cycle was associated with the involvement of more than one Na(+) ion. Uptake of asparagine was directly demonstrable in these oocytes by using radiolabeled substrate, and this uptake was inhibited by membrane depolarization. In addition, simultaneous measurement of asparagine influx and charge influx in the same oocyte yielded an asparagine:charge ratio of 1. These data suggest that SN1 mediates the influx of two Na(+) and one amino acid substrate per transport cycle coupled to the efflux of one H(+), rendering the transport process electrogenic.

Cloning of an amino acid transporter with functional characteristics and tissue expression pattern identical to that of system A.

We report here on the cloning and functional characterization of the protein responsible for the system A amino acid transport activity that is known to be expressed in most mammalian tissues. This transporter, designated ATA2 for amino acid transporter A2, was cloned from rat skeletal muscle. It is distinct from the neuron-specific glutamine transporter (GlnT/ATA1). Rat ATA2 consists of 504 amino acids and bears significant homology to GlnT/ATA1 and system N (SN1). ATA2-specific mRNA is ubiquitously expressed in rat tissues. When expressed in mammalian cells, ATA2 mediates Na(+)-dependent transport of alpha-(methylamino)isobutyric acid, a specific model substrate for system A. The transporter is specific for neutral amino acids. It is pH-sensitive and Li(+)-intolerant. The Na(+):amino acid stoichiometry is 1:1. When expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, transport of neutral amino acids via ATA2 is associated with inward currents. The substrate-induced current is Na(+)-dependent and pH-sensitive. The amino acid transport system A is particularly known for its adaptive and hormonal regulation, and therefore the successful cloning of the protein responsible for this transport activity represents a significant step toward understanding the function and expression of this transporter in various physiological and pathological states.

A novel H(+)-coupled oligopeptide transporter (OPT3) from Caenorhabditis elegans with a predominant function as a H(+) channel and an exclusive expression in neurons.

We have cloned and functionally characterized a novel, neuron-specific, H(+)-coupled oligopeptide transporter (OPT3) from Caenorhabditis elegans that functions predominantly as a H(+) channel. The opt3 gene is approximately 4.4 kilobases long and consists of 13 exons. The cDNA codes for a protein of 701 amino acids with 11 putative transmembrane domains. When expressed in mammalian cells and in Xenopus laevis oocytes, OPT3 cDNA induces H(+)-coupled transport of the dipeptide glycylsarcosine. Electrophysiological studies of the transport function of OPT3 in Xenopus oocytes show that this transporter, although capable of mediating H(+)-coupled peptide transport, functions predominantly as a H(+) channel. The H(+) channel activity of OPT3 is approximately 3-4-fold greater than the H(+)/peptide cotransport activity as determined by measurements of H(+) gradient-induced inward currents in the absence and presence of the dipeptide using the two-microelectrode voltage clamp technique. A downhill influx of H(+) was accompanied by a large intracellular acidification as evidenced from the changes in intracellular pH using an ion-selective microelectrode. The H(+) channel activity exhibits a K(0.5)(H) of 1.0 microM at a membrane potential of -50 mV. At the level of primary structure, OPT3 has moderate homology with OPT1 and OPT2, two other H(+)-coupled oligopeptide transporters previously cloned from C. elegans. Expression studies using the opt3::gfp fusion constructs in transgenic C. elegans demonstrate that opt3 gene is exclusively expressed in neurons. OPT3 may play an important physiological role as a pH balancer in the maintenance of H(+) homeostasis in C. elegans.

Molecular cloning and functional characterization of a polyspecific organic anion transporter from Caenorhabditis elegans.

We have cloned a polyspecific organic anion transporter from Caenorhabditis elegans and elucidated its functional characteristics. The C. elegans anion transporter (CeOAT1) codes for a protein of 526 amino acids containing 12 putative transmembrane domains. It exhibits significant homology at the level of amino acid sequence to the C. elegans organic cation transporter and to the mammalian organic cation and anion transporters. The function of CeOAT1 was investigated by expressing the transporter heterologously in mammalian cells. CeOAT1 transports p-aminohippurate (PAH) in a Na(+)-independent manner. The transport mechanism appears to involve anion exchange because CeOAT1-mediated PAH transport is stimulated by a cell-to-medium concentration gradient of alpha-ketoglutarate or fumarate generated by coexpression in the cells of a mammalian Na(+)-coupled dicarboxylate transporter. CeOAT1 exhibits broad specificity, accepting anions such as folate, indomethacin, furosemide, probenecid, and benzylpenicillin as substrates. The Michaelis-Menten constant for the prototypical organic anion PAH is 0.43+/-0.07 mM. This constitutes the first report of the molecular and functional identification of a polyspecific organic anion transporter in C. elegans.

Human placental Na+-dependent multivitamin transporter. Cloning, functional expression, gene structure, and chromosomal localization.

We have cloned the human Na+-dependent multivitamin transporter (SMVT), which transports the water-soluble vitamins pantothenate, biotin, and lipoate, from a placental choriocarcinoma cell line (JAR). The cDNA codes for a protein of 635 amino acids with 12 transmembrane domains and 4 putative sites for N-linked glycosylation. The human SMVT exhibits a high degree of homology (84% identity and 89% similarity) to the rat counterpart. When expressed in HRPE cells, the cDNA-induced transport process is obligatorily dependent on Na+ and accepts pantothenate, biotin, and lipoate as substrates. The relationship between the cDNA-specific uptake rate of pantothenate or biotin and Na+ concentration is sigmoidal with a Na+:vitamin stoichiometry of 2:1. The human SMVT, when expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, induces inward currents in the presence of pantothenate, biotin, and lipoate in a Na+-, concentration-, and potential-dependent manner. We also report here on the structural organization and chromosomal localization of the human SMVT gene. The SMVT gene is approximately 14 kilobase pairs in length and consists of 17 exons. The SMVT gene is located on chromosome 2p23 as evidenced by somatic cell hybrid analysis and fluorescence in situ hybridization.

Molecular and functional characterization of the intestinal Na+-dependent multivitamin transporter.

We have cloned a Na+-dependent multivitamin transporter from rabbit intestine (riSMVT). The cDNA codes for a protein of 636 amino acids with 12 putative transmembrane domains. When expressed in mammalian cells, the cDNA induces Na+-dependent uptake of the vitamins pantothenate and biotin. Lipoate is also a substrate for the cDNA-induced uptake process. The affinity constant for the cDNA-specific transport of pantothenate and biotin is approximately 2 and approximately 8 microM, respectively. The Na+:vitamin stoichiometry is greater than 1, indicating that the transport process is electrogenic. The SMVT-specific transcripts of 3.2 kbp are equally distributed throughout the small intestine. We have also cloned SMVT from the human intestinal cell line Caco-2. The Caco-2 SMVT cDNA codes for a protein of 635 amino acids which is homologous to riSMVT and is identical to the SMVT expressed in the human choriocarcinoma cell line JAR. Caco-2 SMVT also catalyzes Na+-dependent uptake of pantothenate, biotin, and lipoate. In oocytes expressing Caco-2 SMVT, all three vitamins evoke inward currents, confirming the electrogenicity of the transport process.

Preferential recognition of zwitterionic dipeptides as transportable substrates by the high-affinity peptide transporter PEPT2.

We investigated the interaction of rat PEPT2, a high-affinity peptide transporter, with neutral, anionic, and cationic dipeptides using electrophysiological approaches as well as tracer uptake methods. D-Phe-L-Gln (neutral), D-Phe-L-Glu (anionic), and D-Phe-L-Lys (cationic) were used as representative, non-hydrolyzable, dipeptides. All three dipeptides induced H+-dependent inward currents in Xenopus laevis oocytes heterologously expressing rat PEPT2. The H+:peptide stoichiometry was 1:1 in each case. A simultaneous measurement of radiolabeled dipeptide influx and charge transfer in the same oocyte indicated a transfer of one net positive charge into the oocyte per transfer of one peptide molecule irrespective of the charged nature of the peptide. We conclude that the zwitterionic peptides are preferentially recognized by PEPT2 as transportable substrates and that the proton/peptide stoichiometry is 1 for the transport process.

Identity of the F52F12.1 gene product in Caenorhabditis elegans as an organic cation transporter.

We describe here the cloning and functional characterization of an organic cation transporter from Caenorhabditis elegans (CeOCT1). The CeOCT1 cDNA is 1826 bp long and codes for a protein of 568 amino acids. The oct1 gene is approximately 3.2 kb in size and consists of 12 exons. The location of this gene corresponds to the F52F12.1 gene locus on chromosome I. The predicted protein contains 12 putative transmembrane domains. It exhibits significant homology to mammalian OCTs. When expressed in mammalian cells, CeOCT1 induces the transport of the prototypical organic cation tetraethylammonium. The Michaelis-Menten constant for this substrate is 80+/-16 microM. The substrate specificity of CeOCT1 is broad. This represents the first report on the cloning and functional characteristics of an organic cation transporter from C. elegans.

Identity of the organic cation transporter OCT3 as the extraneuronal monoamine transporter (uptake2) and evidence for the expression of the transporter in the brain.

We investigated the transport of cationic neurotoxins and neurotransmitters by the potential-sensitive organic transporter OCT3 and its steroid sensitivity using heterologous expression systems and also analyzed the expression of OCT3 in the brain. When expressed in mammalian cells, OCT3 mediates the uptake of the neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) and the neurotransmitter dopamine. Competition experiments show that several cationic neuroactive agents including amphetamines interact with OCT3. When expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, OCT3-mediated MPP+ uptake is associated with inward currents under voltage-clamp conditions. The MPP+-induced currents are saturable with respect to MPP+ concentration, and half-maximal saturation (K0.5) occurs at about 25 microM MPP+ with membrane potential clamped at -50 mV. The K0.5 for MPP+ is markedly influenced by membrane potential. OCT3 is inhibited by several steroids, and beta-estradiol is the most potent inhibitor (Ki approximately 1 microM). The pattern of steroid sensitivity of OCT3 is different from that of OCT1 and OCT2 but correlates significantly with that of the extraneuronal monoamine transporter (uptake2). The transport characteristics and steroid sensitivity provide strong evidence for the molecular identity of OCT3 as uptake2. OCT3 is expressed in the brain as evidenced from Northern blot analysis, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and in situ hybridization using OCT3-specific probes. The molecular identity of the transcript hybridizing to the probe has been established by sequencing the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction product and also by the isolation of the OCT3 cDNA from a brain cDNA library. Regional distribution studies with in situ hybridization show that OCT3 is expressed widely in different brain regions, especially in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex. OCT3 is likely to play a significant role in the disposition of cationic neurotoxins and neurotransmitters in the brain.

Electrophysiological characteristics of the proton-coupled peptide transporter PEPT2 cloned from rat brain.

We have cloned a peptide transporter from rat brain and found it to be identical to rat kidney PEPT2. In the present study we characterize the transport function of the rat brain PEPT2, with special emphasis on electrophysiological properties and interaction with N-acetyl-L-aspartyl-L-glutamate (NAAG). When heterologously expressed in HeLa cells and in SK-N-SH cells, PEPT2 transports several dipeptides but not free amino acids in the presence of a proton gradient. NAAG competes with other peptides for the PEPT2-mediated transport process. When PEPT2 is expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, substrate-induced inward currents are detectable with dipeptides of differing charge in the presence of a proton gradient. Proton activation kinetics are similar for differently charged peptides. NAAG is a transportable substrate for PEPT2, as evidenced by NAAG-induced currents. The Hill coefficient for protons for the activation of the transport of differently charged peptides, including NAAG, is 1. Although the peptide-to-proton stoichiometry for negatively charged peptides is 1, the transport nonetheless is associated with transfer of positive charge into the oocyte, as indicated by peptide-induced inward currents.