Insulin Determines Transforming Growth Factor ß Effects on Hepatocyte Nuclear Factor 4α Transcription in Hepatocytes.

Loss of hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α (HNF4α) expression is frequently observed in end-stage liver disease and associated with loss of vital liver functions, thus increasing mortality. Loss of HNF4α expression is mediated by inflammatory cytokines, such as transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß. However, details of how HNF4α is suppressed are largely unknown to date. Herein, TGF-ß did not directly inhibit HNF4α but contributed to its transcriptional regulation by SMAD2/3 recruiting acetyltransferase CREB-binding protein/p300 to the HNF4α promoter. The recruitment of CREB-binding protein/p300 is indispensable for CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (C/EBPα) binding, another essential requirement for constitutive HNF4α expression in hepatocytes. Consistent with the in vitro observation, 67 of 98 patients with hepatic HNF4α expressed both phospho-SMAD2 and C/EBPα, whereas 22 patients without HNF4α expression lacked either phospho-SMAD2 or C/EBPα. In contrast to the observed induction of HNF4α, SMAD2/3 inhibited C/EBPα transcription. Long-term TGF-ß incubation resulted in C/EBPα depletion, which abrogated HNF4α expression. Intriguingly, SMAD2/3 inhibitory binding to the C/EBPα promoter was abolished by insulin. Two-thirds of patients without C/EBPα lacked membrane glucose transporter type 2 expression in hepatocytes, indicating insulin resistance. Taken together, these data indicate that hepatic insulin sensitivity is essential for hepatic HNF4α expression in the condition of inflammation.

FOXA2 prevents hyperbilirubinaemia in acute liver failure by maintaining apical MRP2 expression.

OBJECTIVE: Multidrug resistance protein 2 (MRP2) is a bottleneck in bilirubin excretion. Its loss is sufficient to induce hyperbilirubinaemia, a prevailing characteristic of acute liver failure (ALF) that is closely associated with clinical outcome. This study scrutinises the transcriptional regulation of MRP2 under different pathophysiological conditions. DESIGN: Hepatic MRP2, farnesoid X receptor (FXR) and Forkhead box A2 (FOXA2) expression and clinicopathologic associations were examined by immunohistochemistry in 14 patients with cirrhosis and 22 patients with ALF. MRP2 regulatory mechanisms were investigated in primary hepatocytes, Fxr -/- mice and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated mice. RESULTS: Physiologically, homeostatic MRP2 transcription is mediated by the nuclear receptor FXR/retinoid X receptor complex. Fxr-/- mice lack apical MRP2 expression and rapidly progress into hyperbilirubinaemia. In patients with ALF, hepatic FXR expression is undetectable, however, patients without infection maintain apical MRP2 expression and do not suffer from hyperbilirubinaemia. These patients express FOXA2 in hepatocytes. FOXA2 upregulates MRP2 transcription through binding to its promoter. Physiologically, nuclear FOXA2 translocation is inhibited by insulin. In ALF, high levels of glucagon and tumour necrosis factor α induce FOXA2 expression and nuclear translocation in hepatocytes. Impressively, ALF patients with sepsis express low levels of FOXA2, lose MRP2 expression and develop severe hyperbilirubinaemia. In this case, LPS inhibits FXR expression, induces FOXA2 nuclear exclusion and thus abrogates the compensatory MRP2 upregulation. In both Fxr -/- and LPS-treated mice, ectopic FOXA2 expression restored apical MRP2 expression and normalised serum bilirubin levels. CONCLUSION: FOXA2 replaces FXR to maintain MRP2 expression in ALF without sepsis. Ectopic FOXA2 expression to maintain MRP2 represents a potential strategy to prevent hyperbilirubinaemia in septic ALF.

Serum Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (sGDNF) Is a Novel Biomarker in Predicting Cirrhosis in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis B.

Objectives: We assessed the potential of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) as a useful biomarker to predict cirrhosis in chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients. Methods: A total of 735 patients from two medical centers (385 CHB patients and 350 healthy controls) were included to determine the association of serum and tissue GDNF levels with biopsy-proven cirrhosis. The diagnostic accuracy of serum GDNF (sGDNF) was estimated and compared with other indices of cirrhosis. Results: We showed significantly higher levels of sGDNF in CHB patients with fibrosis (28.4 pg/ml vs. 11.6 pg/ml in patients without) and patients with cirrhosis (33.8 pg/ml vs. 23.5 pg/ml in patients without). The areas under receiver operating curve (AUROCs) of sGDNF were 0.83 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.80-0.87) for predicting liver fibrosis and 0.84 (95% CI: 0.79-0.89) for cirrhosis. Findings from the serum protein level and hepatic mRNA expression were consistent. Using the best cutoff to predict cirrhosis, we categorized the patients into sGDNF-high and sGDNF-low groups. The sGDNF-high group had significantly larger Masson's trichrome and reticulin staining-positive area, higher Scheuer score, and METAVIR fibrosis stage (all p < 0.001) but not steatosis. On multivariable regression, sGDNF was independently associated with cirrhosis with an odds ratio of 6.98 (95% CI: 1.10-17.94). Finally, we demonstrated that sGDNF outperformed AST to platelet ratio index, FIB-4, fibroscore, forn index, and fibrometer in differentiating F4 vs. F3. Conclusion: Using serum, tissue mRNA, and biopsy data, our study revealed a significant potential of sGDNF as a novel noninvasive biomarker for cirrhosis in CHB patients.

A hierarchical regulatory network ensures stable albumin transcription under various pathophysiological conditions.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: It remains unknown how patients with liver failure maintain essential albumin levels. Here, we delineate a hierarchical transcription regulatory network that ensures albumin expression under different disease conditions. APPROACH AND RESULTS: We examined albumin levels in liver tissues and serum in 157 patients, including 84 with HCC, 38 decompensated cirrhosis, and 35 acute liver failure. Even in patients with liver failure, the average serum albumin concentrations were 30.55 g/L. In healthy subjects and patients with chronic liver diseases, albumin was expressed in hepatocytes. In patients with massive hepatocyte loss, albumin was expressed in liver progenitor cells (LPCs). The albumin gene (ALB) core promoter possesses a TATA box and nucleosome-free area, which allows constitutive RNA polymerase II binding and transcription initiation. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays revealed that hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4α), CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein alpha (C/EBPα), and forkhead box A2 (FOXA2) bound to the ALB enhancer. Knockdown of either of these factors reduced albumin expression in hepatocytes. FOXA2 acts as a pioneer factor to support HNF4α and C/EBPα. In hepatocytes lacking HNF4α and C/EBPα expression, FOXA2 synergized with retinoic acid receptor (RAR) to maintain albumin transcription. RAR nuclear translocation was induced by retinoic acids released by activated HSCs. In patients with massive hepatocyte loss, LPCs expressed HNF4α and FOXA2. RNA sequencing and quantitative PCR analyses revealed that lack of HNF4α and C/EBPα in hepatocytes increased hedgehog ligand biosynthesis. Hedgehog up-regulates FOXA2 expression through glioblastoma family zinc finger 2 binding to the FOXA2 promoter in both hepatocytes and LPCs. CONCLUSIONS: A hierarchical regulatory network formed by master and pioneer transcription factors ensures essential albumin expression in various pathophysiological conditions.

Liver Progenitor Cells in Massive Hepatic Necrosis-How Can a Patient Survive Acute Liver Failure?

Massive hepatic necrosis is the most severe lesion in acute liver failure, yet a portion of patients manage to survive and recover from this high-risk and harsh disease syndrome. The mechanisms underlying recovery remain largely unknown to date. Recent research progress highlights a key role of liver progenitor cells, the smallest biliary cells, in the maintenance of liver homeostasis and thus survival. These stem-like cells rapidly proliferate and take over crucial hepatocyte functions in a severely damaged liver. Hence, the new findings not only add to our understanding of the huge regenerative capability of the liver, but also provide potential new targets for the pharmacological management of acute liver failure in clinical practice.

Follistatin-controlled activin-HNF4α-coagulation factor axis in liver progenitor cells determines outcome of acute liver failure.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: In patients with acute liver failure (ALF) who suffer from massive hepatocyte loss, liver progenitor cells (LPCs) take over key hepatocyte functions, which ultimately determines survival. This study investigated how the expression of hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α (HNF4α), its regulators, and targets in LPCs determines clinical outcome of patients with ALF. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Clinicopathological associations were scrutinized in 19 patients with ALF (9 recovered and 10 receiving liver transplantation). Regulatory mechanisms between follistatin, activin, HNF4α, and coagulation factor expression in LPC were investigated in vitro and in metronidazole-treated zebrafish. A prospective clinical study followed up 186 patients with cirrhosis for 80 months to observe the relevance of follistatin levels in prevalence and mortality of acute-on-chronic liver failure. Recovered patients with ALF robustly express HNF4α in either LPCs or remaining hepatocytes. As in hepatocytes, HNF4α controls the expression of coagulation factors by binding to their promoters in LPC. HNF4α expression in LPCs requires the forkhead box protein H1-Sma and Mad homolog 2/3/4 transcription factor complex, which is promoted by the TGF-ß superfamily member activin. Activin signaling in LPCs is negatively regulated by follistatin, a hepatocyte-derived hormone controlled by insulin and glucagon. In contrast to patients requiring liver transplantation, recovered patients demonstrate a normal activin/follistatin ratio, robust abundance of the activin effectors phosphorylated Sma and Mad homolog 2 and HNF4α in LPCs, leading to significantly improved coagulation function. A follow-up study indicated that serum follistatin levels could predict the incidence and mortality of acute-on-chronic liver failure. CONCLUSIONS: These results highlight a crucial role of the follistatin-controlled activin-HNF4α-coagulation axis in determining the clinical outcome of massive hepatocyte loss-induced ALF. The effects of insulin and glucagon on follistatin suggest a key role of the systemic metabolic state in ALF.

Intracellular alpha-fetoprotein interferes with all-trans retinoic acid induced ATG7 expression and autophagy in hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

Retinoic acid and retinoid acid receptor (RA-RAR) signaling exhibits suppressive functions in the progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) through multiple mechanisms. However, whether RA-RAR signaling induces autophagy that contributes its anti-tumor activity in HCC remains elusive. In the current study, the effects of RA-RAR pathway on autophagy were investigated in two HCC cell lines: alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) positive PLC/PRF/5 and AFP negative HLE cells. Cell autophagy was analyzed with western blot for detection of LC3 conversion and p62/SQSTM1 degradation while autophagy flux was assayed using the mRFP-GFP-LC3 reporter. Cell apoptosis and viability were analyzed by caspase-3 activity, TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay, and Cell Counting Kit (CCK)-8, respectively. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) was employed to detect the binding of RAR onto the promoter of autophagy-relevant 7 (ATG7), and co-immunoprecipitation (CoIP) was used to analyze the interaction of AFP and RAR. The results showed that ATRA dosage and time-dependently induced high levels of cell autophagy in both the PLC/PRF/5 and HLE cells, which was accompanied with up-regulation of ATG7. ChIP assay showed that RAR was able to bind to its responsive elements on ATG7 promoter. Impairment of ATG7 induction or blockade of autophagy with chloroquine aggravated ATRA induced apoptosis of HCC cells. Furthermore, intracellular AFP was able to complex with RAR in PLC/PRF/5 cells. Knockdown of AFP in PLC/PRF/5 cells augmented the up-regulation of ATG7 by ATRA while overexpression of AFP in HLE cells attenuated ATRA induced ATG7 expression and autophagy. Thus, ATRA induced ATG7 and autophagy participated in its cytotoxicity on HCC cells and AFP interfere with the induction of ATG7 and autophagy through forming complex with RAR.

Low Doses of Sucralose Alter Fecal Microbiota in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Rats.

Artificial sweeteners (AS) have been widely used as sugar substitutes to reduce calorie intake. However, it was reported that high doses of AS induced glucose intolerance via modulating gut microbiota. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of lower doses of sucralose on fecal microbiota in obesity. Eight weeks after high-fat diet (HFD), the male Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups (6 in each group) and administrated by a daily gavage of 2 ml normal saline (CON), 0.54 mM sucralose (N054), 0.78 mM sucralose (N078), and 324 mM sucrose (S324), respectively. After 4 weeks, fecal samples were obtained and analyzed by 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing. The richness and diversity of fecal microbiota were not changed by sucralose or sucrose. Both 0.54 mM (0.43 mg) and 0.78 mM (0.62 mg) sucralose tended to reduce the beneficial bacteria, Lactobacillaceae and Akkermansiaceae. The relative abundance of family Acidaminoccaceae and its genus Phascolarctobacteriam were increased after 0.54 mM sucralose. In functional prediction, 0.54 mM sucralose increased profiles of carbohydrate metabolism, whereas 0.78 mM sucralose enhanced those of amino acid metabolism. The lower doses of sucralose might alter the compositions of fecal microbiota. The effects of sucralose in different dosages should be considered in the future study.

Sucralose can improve glucose tolerance and upregulate expression of sweet taste receptors and glucose transporters in an obese rat model.

OBJECTIVES: Non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) are widely used as replacements for table sugar in beverages and dessert. However, the metabolic effects of NNS remain controversial. This study aimed to investigate the effects of various sucralose loads on glucose metabolism and expression of sweet taste receptors (STR) and glucose transporters in a high-fat diet (HFD) rats. METHODS: Four-week-old male Sprague Dawley rats were fed a HFD for 8 weeks, then randomly divided into eight groups (6 in each group). All were gavaged with either saline, sucralose (0.54 mM or 0.78 mM), or sucrose (324 mM) with/without gurmarin, a sweet taste inhibitor, for 4 weeks, followed by an intragastric glucose tolerance test (IGGTT) with blood glucose, and plasma insulin, GLP-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) measurements. In the following week, the rats were sacrificed and the small intestine was removed for measurement of sweet taste receptor and glucose transporter expression by quantitative Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction. RESULTS: In HFD rats, blood glucose levels were decreased at 30, 60, and 120 min during the IGGTT after 4 weeks supplementation with 0.78 mM sucralose. TIR3 expression was increased in the duodenum and TIR2 was increased in the ileum after 324 mM sucrose supplementation. T1R3 expression was increased after 0.54 mM and 0.78 mM sucralose in the ileum, but there was no change in the expression of TIRs in the duodenum after sucralose treatments. SGLT-1 expression was increased after both 0.78 mM sucralose and 324 mM sucrose in the ileum, and only increased in the duodenum after 324 mM sucrose supplementation. CONCLUSIONS: The effects of sucralose on glucose metabolism in HFD rats are dose-dependent and related to enhanced expression of sweet taste receptors and glucose transporters. Further studies are needed to clarify the molecular mechanisms involved.

Dapagliflozin Modulates the Fecal Microbiota in a Type 2 Diabetic Rat Model.

Background: The gut microbiota is recognized as a major modulator of metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes. Dapagliflozin, sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i), enhances renal glucose excretion, and lowers blood glucose levels. The study aimed to determine the effects of dapagliflozin on fecal microbiota in a type 2 diabetic rat model. Methods: Four-week-old male Sprague Dawley rats (n = 24) were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 8 weeks and then given a single dose of STZ injection (30 mg/kg, i.p). They were randomly divided into three groups (n = 8). Each group received intragastric infusion of normal saline (2 ml, 0.9%) or metformin (215.15 mg/kg/day) or dapagliflozin (1 mg/kg/day) for 4 weeks. Blood glucose levels and plasma insulin levels were detected during intragastric glucose tolerance. Fecal samples were collected to access microbiome by 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing. Results: Dapagliflozin significantly decreased fasting and postprandial blood glucose levels as metformin in type 2 diabetic rats (P < 0.001). Enterotype was composed of Ruminococcaceae after treatment of dapagliflozin, whereas Ruminococcaceae and Muribaculaceae were the main enterotypes following metformin treatment. Dapagliflozin did not increase the abundance of beneficial bacteria including Lactobacillaceae and Bifidobacteriaceae. However, these were increased in the metformin group. It is surprising to find that Proteobacteria (especially Desulfovibrionaceae) were enriched in the dapagliflozin group. Conclusion: Dapagliflozin and metformin exerted complementary effects on the main beneficial bacteria. A combination of these two drugs might be beneficial to improve the structure of fecal microbiota in the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Effects of Metformin and Sitagliptin Monotherapy on Expression of Intestinal and Renal Sweet Taste Receptors and Glucose Transporters in a Rat Model of Type 2 Diabetes.

Disordered intestinal sweet taste receptors (STRs) are implicated in glucose homeostasis by involving in incretin secretion and glucose absorption. However, the effects of antidiabetic medications on STRs, downstream molecules, and glucose transporters expression are unknown. In our study, ZDF rats (n=24) were randomly treated by metformin (MET, 215.15 mg/kg), sitagliptin (SIT, 10.76 mg/kg), or saline for 4 weeks. Fasting blood glucose and insulin levels were measured, and HOMA-IR and QUICKI index were calculated. One week later, we detected relative mRNA expression of T1R2/T1R3, α-gustducin, TRPM5 and glucose transporters including SGLT1, SGLT2, and GLUT2 in the small intestine and kidney. We found that though both metformin and sitagliptin effectively decreased fasting blood glucose, only metformin improved HOMA-IR and QUICKI (p<0.05). MRNA levels of STRs and sweet taste molecules in duodenum and jejunum were not different among three groups, but those in ileum were dramatically upregulated after SIT (vs. MET p<0.05; vs. CON p<0.01). SGLT1 and GLUT2 in ileum were markedly increased after SIT (p<0.01). In the kidney, expression of SGLT2 and GLUT2 were downregulated in both SIT and MET group (p<0.05). In conclusion, metformin and sitagliptin exerted different effects on expression of STRs and glucose transporters in the gut and kidney. STRs, downstream molecules, and glucose transporters in distal small intestinal were sensitively increased in response to sitagliptin than metformin treatment. Renal glucose transporters were downregulated after metformin and sitagliptin treatment.

Effects of metformin, acarbose, and sitagliptin monotherapy on gut microbiota in Zucker diabetic fatty rats.

Objective: Recent studies have demonstrated that gut microbiota was closely related to metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes. Oral antidiabetic medications including metformin, acarbose and sitagliptin lowered blood glucose levels via acting on the gastrointestinal tract. The aim of the study was to observe the comparisons among those medications on gut microbiota composition. Research design and methods: Zucker diabetic fatty rats (n=32) were randomly divided into four groups, and had respectively gastric administration of normal saline (control), metformin (215.15 mg/kg/day), acarbose (32.27 mg/kg/day), or sitagliptin (10.76 mg/kg/day) for 4 weeks. Blood glucose levels were measured during an intragastric starch tolerance test after the treatments. 16S rRNA gene sequencing was used to access the microbiota in the fecal samples. Results: Metformin, acarbose, and sitagliptin monotherapy effectively decreased fasting and postprandial blood glucose levels (p<0.001). Acarbose group displayed specific cluster and enterotype mainly composed by Ruminococcus 2 while Lactobacillus was the dominant bacterium in the enterotype of the other three groups. The relative abundance of genera Ruminococcus 2 and Bifidobacterium was dramatically higher in acarbose group. Metformin and sitagliptin increased the relative abundance of genus Lactobacillus. Metagenomic prediction showed that the functional profiles of carbohydrate metabolism were enriched in acarbose group. Conclusions: Metformin, acarbose and sitagliptin exerted different effects on the composition of gut microbiota and selectively increased the beneficial bacteria. Supplementation with specific probiotics may further improve the hypoglycemic effects of the antidiabetic drugs.

Estrogen-related receptor γ controls sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c expression and alcoholic fatty liver.

Although SREBP-1c regulates key enzymes required for hepatic de novo lipogenesis, the mechanisms underlying transcriptional regulation of SREBP-1c in pathogenesis of alcoholic fatty liver is still incompletely understood. In this study, we investigated the role of ERRγ in alcohol-mediated hepatic lipogenesis and examined the possibility to ameliorate alcoholic fatty liver through its inverse agonist. Hepatic ERRγ and SREBP-1c expression was increased by alcohol-mediated activation of CB1 receptor signaling. Deletion and mutation analyses of the Srebp-1c gene promoter showed that ERRγ directly regulates Srebp-1c gene transcription via binding to an ERR-response element. Overexpression of ERRγ significantly induced SREBP-1c expression and fat accumulation in liver of mice, which were blocked in Srebp-1c-knockout hepatocytes. Conversely, liver-specific ablation of ERRγ gene expression attenuated alcohol-mediated induction of SREBP-1c expression. Finally, an ERRγ inverse agonist, GSK5182, significantly ameliorates fatty liver disease in chronically alcohol-fed mice through inhibition of SREBP-1c-mediated fat accumulation. ERRγ mediates alcohol-induced hepatic lipogenesis by upregulating SREBP-1c expression, which can be blunted by the inverse agonist for ERRγ, which may be an attractive therapeutic strategy for the treatment of alcoholic fatty liver disease in human.

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) mediates hepatic stellate cell activation via ALK5/Smad signalling.

OBJECTIVE: Although glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is a member of the transforming growth factor-ß superfamily, its function in liver fibrosis has rarely been studied. Here, we investigated the role of GDNF in hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation and liver fibrosis in humans and mice. DESIGN: GDNF expression was examined in liver biopsies and sera from patients with liver fibrosis. The functional role of GDNF in liver fibrosis was examined in mice with adenoviral delivery of the GDNF gene, GDNF sgRNA CRISPR/Cas9 and the administration of GDNF-blocking antibodies. GDNF was examined on HSC activation using human and mouse primary HSCs. The binding of activin receptor-like kinase 5 (ALK5) to GDNF was determined using surface plasmon resonance (SPR), molecular docking, mutagenesis and co-immunoprecipitation. RESULTS: GDNF mRNA and protein levels are significantly upregulated in patients with stage F4 fibrosis. Serum GDNF content correlates positively with α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and Col1A1 mRNA in human fibrotic livers. Mice with overexpressed GDNF display aggravated liver fibrosis, while mice with silenced GDNF expression or signalling inhibition by GDNF-blocking antibodies have reduced fibrosis and HSC activation. GDNF is confined mainly to HSCs and contributes to HSC activation through ALK5 at His39 and Asp76 and through downstream signalling via Smad2/3, but not through GDNF family receptor alpha-1 (GFRα1). GDNF, ALK5 and α-SMA colocalise in human and mouse HSCs, as demonstrated by confocal microscopy. CONCLUSIONS: GDNF promotes HSC activation and liver fibrosis through ALK5/Smad signalling. Inhibition of GDNF could be a novel therapeutic strategy to combat liver fibrosis.

Hdac1 Regulates Differentiation of Bipotent Liver Progenitor Cells During Regeneration via Sox9b and Cdk8.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Upon liver injury in which hepatocyte proliferation is compromised, liver progenitor cells (LPCs), derived from biliary epithelial cells (BECs), differentiate into hepatocytes. Little is known about the mechanisms of LPC differentiation. We used zebrafish and mouse models of liver injury to study the mechanisms. METHODS: We used transgenic zebrafish, Tg(fabp10a:CFP-NTR), to study the effects of compounds that alter epigenetic factors on BEC-mediated liver regeneration. We analyzed zebrafish with disruptions of the histone deacetylase 1 gene (hdac1) or exposed to MS-275 (an inhibitor of Hdac1, Hdac2, and Hdac3). We also analyzed zebrafish with mutations in sox9b, fbxw7, kdm1a, and notch3. Zebrafish larvae were collected and analyzed by whole-mount immunostaining and in situ hybridization; their liver tissues were collected for quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. We studied mice in which hepatocyte-specific deletion of ß-catenin (Ctnnb1flox/flox mice injected with Adeno-associated virus serotype 8 [AAV8]-TBG-Cre) induces differentiation of LPCs into hepatocytes after a choline-deficient, ethionine-supplemented (CDE) diet. Liver tissues were collected and analyzed by immunohistochemistry and immunoblots. We performed immunohistochemical analyses of liver tissues from patients with compensated or decompensated cirrhosis or acute on chronic liver failure (n = 15). RESULTS: Loss of Hdac1 activity in zebrafish blocked differentiation of LPCs into hepatocytes by increasing levels of sox9b mRNA and reduced differentiation of LPCs into BECs by increasing levels of cdk8 mRNA, which encodes a negative regulator gene of Notch signaling. We identified Notch3 as the receptor that regulates differentiation of LPCs into BECs. Loss of activity of Kdm1a, a lysine demethylase that forms repressive complexes with Hdac1, produced the same defects in differentiation of LPCs into hepatocytes and BECs as observed in zebrafish with loss of Hdac1 activity. Administration of MS-275 to mice with hepatocyte-specific loss of ß-catenin impaired differentiation of LPCs into hepatocytes after the CDE diet. HDAC1 was expressed in reactive ducts and hepatocyte buds of liver tissues from patients with cirrhosis. CONCLUSIONS: Hdac1 regulates differentiation of LPCs into hepatocytes via Sox9b and differentiation of LPCs into BECs via Cdk8, Fbxw7, and Notch3 in zebrafish with severe hepatocyte loss. HDAC1 activity was also required for differentiation of LPCs into hepatocytes in mice with liver injury after the CDE diet. These pathways might be manipulated to induce LPC differentiation for treatment of patients with advanced liver diseases.

Are we any closer to treating liver fibrosis (and if no, why not)?

This review provides a personal view on anti-fibrosis therapy in the liver. The worst clinical consequence of liver fibrosis is the development of liver cirrhosis and portal hypertension. Etiology is a decisive factor which determines patterns of fibrous septa and subsequent vascular remodeling, which is essential for the development of portal hypertension. Removing or controlling the disease-causing agent, i.e. anti-viral treatment for hepatitis, is the essential first step for treating chronic liver diseases and can reverse fibrosis in some settings. However, removing etiology is not always sufficient to prevent fibrosis from progressing towards cirrhosis and portal hypertension. In liver diseases such as severe alcoholic hepatitis and massive parenchymal loss, the formation of vascular anastomoses between portal to central veins based on bridging fibrosis results in cirrhosis and portal hypertension. For these patients, anti-fibrotic treatment is crucial and urgent. Unfortunately, a lack of understanding how fibrosis contributes to vascular remodeling caused by and combined with a lack of suitable experimental models that recapitulate human liver diseases, has hampered the development of successful anti-fibrotic drugs for clinical use to date.

Expression of sweet taste receptor and gut hormone secretion in modelled type 2 diabetes.

Sweet taste receptors (STRs) are expressed in L cells which secret glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in the gut. The STR blocker lactisole reduces GLP-1 secretion and increases blood glucose levels. Therefore, we investigated the expression of sweet taste molecules in the proximal and distal small intestine, and gut hormone secretion, in healthy control and type 2 diabetic rats. Two groups of rats (Sprague Dawley (SD), and Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF)) were involved in the study. Each group (n=10) received an intragastric glucose infusion (50% glucose solution, 2g/kg body weight). Blood samples were taken for measurement of blood glucose, plasma insulin, and GLP-1 concentrations. One week later, we obtained small intestinal tissue and detected the expression of STRs and glucose transporters (GTs) by real time polymerase chain reaction (Real Time-PCR). Sweet taste molecules of T1R2, T1R3, α-gustducin and TRPM5 in ileum were dramatically higher than those in duodenum (P<0.01 for each). T1R3, α-gustducin and TRPM5 expression were less in the ileum of ZDF than those in SD (P<0.05 for each), while expression of glucose transporter 2 (GLUT-2) in ileum was significantly higher in ZDF rats. Plasma GLP-1 levels were higher in ZDF rats than SD rats at t=0, 15, 30, 60 and 120min (P<0.01). In conclusion, transcript levels of ileal T1R3 and GLUT-2 are disordered in ZDF rats suggesting that intestinal sweet taste receptor expression is associated with altered glucose metabolism. The mechanism needs further investigation, but might provide a potential therapy in the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Gastrointestinal hormone secretion in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: an observational study.

STUDY QUESTION: Is the secretion of gastrointestinal hormones impaired in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)? SUMMARY ANSWER: Gastrointestinal hormone levels were abnormal in patients with PCOS. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: The hormones glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and peptide tyrosine-tyrosine (PYY) are both involved in signaling satiety. Secretion of GLP-1 and PYY in response to nutrients in the small intestine plays an important role in energy metabolism. Most PCOS patients are overweight or obese, which suggests dysregulation of appetite. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: In order to evaluate levels of gastrointestinal hormones in PCOS, a cohort study was undertaken, involving 30 PCOS patients and 29 BMI-matched healthy women recruited from Shanghai Renji Hospital between 1 March 2013 and 30 May 2014. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: After an overnight fast, all participants underwent an oral glucose tolerance test. Blood was sampled frequently for measurement of blood glucose and plasma insulin, total GLP-1 and PYY concentrations. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: Fasting and postprandial insulin levels were significantly higher in patients with PCOS compared with the healthy controls (P < 0.05). Fasting and postprandial GLP-1 (t = 0 and 30 min; mean ± SEM) were also higher in PCOS group (17.5 ± 1.07 pM versus 14.1 ± 1.16 pM, P < 0.05; 29.7 ± 2.39 pM versus 22.8 ± 2.09 pM, P < 0.05). However, there were no differences in plasma PYY between patients with PCOS and healthy controls either fasting or postprandially. PYY levels were lower in obese PCOS patients than in lean PCOS patients (P < 0.05). LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: The study involved a small number of subjects with PCOS, and examined hormone responses to oral glucose rather than a physiological meal. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: Deficient secretion of GLP-1 and PYY does not contribute to excessive food intake in the pathophysiology of PCOS.