Isolation and Identification of Arsenic-Resistant Extremophilic Bacteria from the Crater-Lake Volcano "El Chichon", Mexico.

The crater lake at "El Chichón" volcano is an extreme acid-thermal environment with high concentrations of heavy metals. In this study, two bacterial strains with the ability to resist high concentrations of arsenic (As) were isolated from water samples from the crater lake. Staphylococcus ARSC1-P and Stenotrophomonas ARSC2-V isolates were identified by use of the 16S rDNA gene. Staphylococcus ARSC1-P was able to grow in 400 mM of arsenate [As(V)] under oxic and anoxic conditions. The IC50 values were 36 and 382 mM for oxic and anoxic conditions, respectively. For its part, Stenotrophomonas ARSC2-V showed IC50 values of 110 mM and 2.15 for As(V) and arsenite [As(III)], respectively. Arsenic accumulated intracellularly in both species [11-25 nmol As × mg cellular prot-1 in cells cultured in 50 mM As(V)]. The present study shows evidence of microbes that can potentially be a resource for the bio-treatment of arsenic in contaminated sites, which highlights the importance of the "El Chichón" volcano as a source of bacterial strains that are adaptable to extreme conditions.

Lactate oxidation is linked to energy conservation and to oxygen detoxification via a putative terminal cytochrome oxidase in Methanosarcina acetivorans.

The marine archaeon Methanosarcina acetivorans contains a putative NAD + -independent d-lactate dehydrogenase (D-iLDH/glycolate oxidase) encoded by the MA4631 gene, belonging to the FAD-oxidase C superfamily. Nucleotide sequences similar to MA4631 gene, were identified in other methanogens and Firmicutes with >90 and 35-40% identity, respectively. Therefore, the lactate metabolism in M. acetivorans is reported here. Cells subjected to intermittent pulses of oxygen (air-adapted; AA-Ma cells) consumed lactate only in combination with acetate, increasing methane production and biomass yield. In AA-Ma cells incubated with d-lactate plus [14C]-l-lactate, the radioactive label was found in methane, CO2 and glycogen, indicating that lactate metabolism fed both methanogenesis and gluconeogenesis. Moreover, d-lactate oxidation was coupled to O2-consumption which was sensitive to HQNO; also, AA-Ma cells showed high transcript levels of gene dld and those encoding subunits A (MA1006) and B (MA1007) of a putative cytochrome bd quinol oxidase, compared to anaerobic control cells. An E. coli mutant deficient in dld complemented with the MA4631 gene, grew with d-lactate as carbon source and showed membrane-bound d-lactate:quinone oxidoreductase activity. The product of the MA4631 gene is a FAD-containing monomer showing activity of iLDH with preference to d-lactate. The results suggested that air adapted M. acetivorans is able to co-metabolize lactate and acetate with associated oxygen consumption by triggering the transcription and synthesis of the D-iLDH and a putative cytochrome bd: methanophenazine (quinol) oxidoreductase. Biomass generation and O2 consumption, suggest a potentially new oxygen detoxification mechanism coupled to energy conservation in this methanogen.

FruBPase II and ADP-PFK1 are involved in the modulation of carbon flow in the metabolism of carbohydrates in Methanosarcina acetivorans.

To enhance our understanding of the control of archaeal carbon central metabolism, a detailed analysis of the regulation mechanisms of both fructose1,6-bisphosphatase (FruBPase) and ADP-phosphofructokinase-1 (ADP-PFK1) was carried out in the methanogen Methanosarcina acetivorans. No correlations were found among the transcript levels of the MA_1152 and MA_3563 (frubpase type II and pfk1) genes, the FruBPase and ADP-PFK1 activities, and their protein contents. The kinetics of the recombinant FruBPase II and ADP-PFK1 were hyperbolic and showed simple mixed-type inhibition by AMP and ATP, respectively. Under physiological metabolite concentrations, the FruBPase II and ADP-PFK1 activities were strongly modulated by their inhibitors. To assess whether these enzymes were also regulated by a phosphorylation/dephosphorylation process, the recombinant enzymes and cytosolic-enriched fractions were incubated in the presence of commercial protein phosphatase or protein kinase. De-phosphorylation of ADP-PFK1 slightly decreased its activity (i.e. Vmax) and did not change its kinetic parameters and oligomeric state. Thus, the data indicated a predominant metabolic regulation of both FruBPase and ADP-PFK1 activities by adenine nucleotides and suggested high degrees of control on the respective pathway fluxes.