Defects of the spliceosomal gene SNRPB affect osteo- and chondro-differentiation.

Although gene splicing occurs throughout the body, the phenotype of spliceosomal defects is largely limited to specific tissues. Cerebro-costo-mandibular syndrome (CCMS) is one such spliceosomal disease, which presents as congenital skeletal dysmorphism and is caused by mutations of SNRPB gene encoding Small Nuclear Ribonucleoprotein Polypeptides B/B' (SmB/B'). This study employed in vitro cell cultures to monitor osteo- and chondro-differentiation and examined the role of SmB/B' in the differentiation process. We found that low levels of SmB/B' by knockdown or mutations of SNRPB led to suppressed osteodifferentiation in Saos-2 osteoprogenitor-like cells, which was accompanied by affected splicing of Dlx5. On the other hand, low SmB/B' led to promoted chondrogenesis in HEPM mesenchymal stem cells. Consistent with other reports, osteogenesis was promoted by the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway activator and suppressed by Wnt and BMP blockers, whereas chondrogenesis was promoted by Wnt inhibitors. Suppressed osteogenic markers by SNRPB knockdown were partly rescued by Wnt/ß-catenin pathway activation. Reporter analysis revealed that suppression of SNRPB results in attenuated Wnt pathway and/or enhanced BMP pathway activities. SNRPB knockdown altered splicing of TCF7L2 which impacts Wnt/ß-catenin pathway activities. This work helps unravel the mechanism underlying CCMS whereby reduced expression of spliceosomal proteins causes skeletal phenotypes.

Ultra-conserved sequences in the genomes of highly diverse Anopheles mosquitoes, with implications for malaria vector control.

DNA sequences that are exactly conserved over long evolutionary time scales have been observed in a variety of taxa. Such sequences are likely under strong functional constraint and they have been useful in the field of comparative genomics for identifying genome regions with regulatory function. A potential new application for these ultra-conserved elements (UCEs) has emerged in the development of gene drives to control mosquito populations. Many gene drives work by recognizing and inserting at a specific target sequence in the genome, often imposing a reproductive load as a consequence. They can therefore select for target sequence variants that provide resistance to the drive. Focusing on highly conserved, highly constrained sequences lowers the probability that variant, gene drive-resistant alleles can be tolerated. Here, we search for conserved sequences of 18 bp and over in an alignment of 21 Anopheles genomes, spanning an evolutionary timescale of 100 million years, and characterize the resulting sequences according to their location and function. Over 8000 UCEs were found across the alignment, with a maximum length of 164 bp. Length-corrected gene ontology analysis revealed that genes containing Anopheles UCEs were over-represented in categories with structural or nucleotide-binding functions. Known insect transcription factor binding sites were found in 48% of intergenic Anopheles UCEs. When we looked at the genome sequences of 1142 wild-caught mosquitoes, we found that 15% of the Anopheles UCEs contained no polymorphisms. Our list of Anopheles UCEs should provide a valuable starting point for the selection and testing of new targets for gene-drive modification in the mosquitoes that transmit malaria.