Sex differences in chest electrical impedance tomography findings.

Objective.Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) has been used to determine regional lung ventilation distribution in humans for decades, however, the effect of biological sex on the findings has hardly ever been examined. The aim of our study was to determine if the spatial distribution of ventilation assessed by EIT during quiet breathing was influenced by biological sex.Approach.219 adults with no known acute or chronic lung disease were examined in sitting position with the EIT electrodes placed around the lower chest (6th intercostal space). EIT data were recorded at 33 images/s during quiet breathing for 60 s. Regional tidal impedance variation was calculated in all EIT image pixels and the spatial distribution of the values was determined using the established EIT measures of centre of ventilation in ventrodorsal (CoVvd) and right-to-left direction (CoVrl), the dorsal and right fraction of ventilation, and ventilation defect score.Main results.After exclusion of one subject due to insufficient electrode contact, 218 data sets were analysed (120 men, 98 women) (age: 53 ± 18 vs 50 ± 16 yr (p= 0.2607), body mass index: 26.4 ± 4.0 vs 26.4 ± 6.6 kg m-2(p= 0.9158), mean ± SD). Highly significant differences in ventilation distribution were identified between men and women between the right and left chest sides (CoVrl: 47.0 ± 2.9 vs 48.8 ± 3.3% of chest diameter (p< 0.0001), right fraction of ventilation: 0.573 ± 0.067 vs 0.539 ± 0.071 (p= 0.0004)) and less significant in the ventrodorsal direction (CoVvd: 55.6 ± 4.2 vs 54.5 ± 3.6% of chest diameter (p= 0.0364), dorsal fraction of ventilation: 0.650 ± 0.121 vs 0.625 ± 0.104 (p= 0.1155)). Ventilation defect score higher than one was found in 42.5% of men but only in 16.6% of women.Significance.Biological sex needs to be considered when EIT findings acquired in upright subjects in a rather caudal examination plane are interpreted. Sex differences in chest anatomy and thoracoabdominal mechanics may explain the results.

Distribution of regional lung function in upright healthy subjects determined by electrical impedance tomography in two chest examination planes.

Objective. The variation in pulmonary gas content induced by ventilation is not uniformly distributed in the lungs. The aim of our study was to characterize the differences in spatial distribution of ventilation in two transverse sections of the chest using electrical impedance tomography (EIT).Approach. Twenty adult never-smokers, 10 women and 10 men (mean age ± SD, 31 ± 9 years), were examined in a sitting position with the EIT electrodes placed consecutively in a caudal (6th intercostal space) and a cranial (4th intercostal space) chest location. EIT data were acquired during quiet breathing, slow and forced full expiration manoeuvres. Impedance variations representing tidal volume (VT), vital capacity (VC), forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) and forced vital capacity (FVC) were calculated at the level of individual image pixels and their spatial distribution was determined using the following EIT measures: the centres of ventilation in ventrodorsal (CoVvd) and right-to-left direction (CoVrl), the dorsal and right fractions of ventilation, the coefficient of variation (CV) and the global inhomogeneity (GI) index.Main results. The sums of pixel ventilation-related impedance variations reproduced reliably the volumetric dissimilarities amongVT, VC, FEV1and FVC, with no significant differences noted between the two examination planes. Significant differences in ventilation distribution were found between the planes during tidal breathing and slow full expiration, mainly regarding the ventrodorsal direction, with higher values of CoVvdand dorsal fraction of ventilation in the caudal plane (p< 0.01). No significant differences in the spatial distribution of FEV1and FVC were detected between the examination planes.Significance. The spatial distribution of ventilation differed between the two examination planes only during the relaxed (quiet breathing and slow VC manoeuvre) but not during the forced ventilation. This effect is attributable to the differences in thoracoabdominal mechanics between these types of ventilation.

Wearable pulmonary monitoring system with integrated functional lung imaging and chest sound recording: a clinical investigation in healthy subjects.

Objective.Current wearable respiratory monitoring devices provide a basic assessment of the breathing pattern of the examined subjects. More complex monitoring is needed for healthcare applications in patients with lung diseases. A multi-sensor vest allowing continuous lung imaging by electrical impedance tomography (EIT) and auscultation at six chest locations was developed for such advanced application. The aims of our study were to determine the vest's capacity to record the intended bio-signals, its safety and the comfort of wearing in a first clinical investigation in healthy adult subjects.Approach.Twenty subjects (age range: 23-65 years) were studied while wearing the vests during a 14-step study protocol comprising phases of quiet and deep breathing, slow and forced full expiration manoeuvres, coughing, breath-holding in seated and three horizontal postures. EIT, chest sound and accelerometer signals were streamed to a tablet using a dedicated application and uploaded to a back-end server. The subjects filled in a questionnaire on the vest properties using a Likert scale.Main results.All subjects completed the full protocol. Good to excellent EIT waveforms and functional EIT images were obtained in 89% of the subjects. Breathing pattern and posture dependent changes in ventilation distribution were properly detected by EIT. Chest sounds were recorded in all subjects. Detection of audible heart sounds was feasible in 44%-67% of the subjects, depending on the sensor location. Accelerometry correctly identified the posture in all subjects. The vests were safe and their properties positively rated, thermal and tactile properties achieved the highest scores.Significance.The functionality and safety of the studied wearable multi-sensor vest and the high level of its acceptance by the study participants were confirmed. Availability of personalized vests might further advance its performance by improving the sensor-skin contact.

Identification and analysis of stable breathing periods in electrical impedance tomography recordings.

Objective. In this paper, an automated stable tidal breathing period (STBP) identification method based on processing electrical impedance tomography (EIT) waveforms is proposed and the possibility of detecting and identifying such periods using EIT waveforms is analyzed. In wearable chest EIT, patients breathe spontaneously, and therefore, their breathing pattern might not be stable. Since most of the EIT feature extraction methods are applied to STBPs, this renders their automatic identification of central importance.Approach. The EIT frame sequence is reconstructed from the raw EIT recordings and the raw global impedance waveform (GIW) is computed. Next, the respiratory component of the raw GIW is extracted and processed for the automatic respiratory cycle (breath) extraction and their subsequent grouping into STBPs.Main results. We suggest three criteria for the identification of STBPs, namely, the coefficient of variation of (i) breath tidal volume, (ii) breath duration and (iii) end-expiratory impedance. The total number of true STBPs identified by the proposed method was 294 out of 318 identified by the expert corresponding to accuracy over 90%. Specific activities such as speaking, eating and arm elevation are identified as sources of false positives and their discrimination is discussed.Significance. Simple and computationally efficient STBP detection and identification is a highly desirable component in the EIT processing pipeline. Our study implies that it is feasible, however, the determination of its limits is necessary in order to consider the implementation of more advanced and computationally demanding approaches such as deep learning and fusion with data from other wearable sensors such as accelerometers and microphones.

Regional lung function measures determined by electrical impedance tomography during repetitive ventilation manoeuvres in patients with COPD.

OBJECTIVE: Current standards for conducting spirometry examinations recommend that the ventilation manoeuvres needed in pulmonary function testing are carried out repeatedly during sessions. Chest electrical impedance tomography (EIT) can determine the presence of ventilation heterogeneity during such manoeuvres, which increases the information content derived from such examinations. The aim of this study was to characterise regional lung function in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) during repetitive forced full ventilation manoeuvres. Regional lung function measures derived from these manoeuvres were compared with quiet tidal breathing. APPROACH: Sixty hospitalised patients were examined during up to three repeated ventilation manoeuvres. Acceptable spirometry manoeuvres were performed and EIT recordings suitable for analysis obtained in 53 patients (12 women, 41 men; age: 68 ± 12 years (mean ± SD)). Pixel values of tidal volume, forced full inspiratory and expiratory volume in 1 s, and forced inspiratory and expiratory vital capacity were calculated from the EIT data. Spatial ventilation heterogeneity was assessed using the coefficient of variation, global inhomogeneity index, and centres and regional fractions of ventilation. Temporal inhomogeneity was determined by examining the pixel expiration times needed to exhale 50% and 75% of regional forced vital capacity. MAIN RESULTS: All EIT-derived measures of regional lung function showed reproducible results during repetitive examinations. Parameters of spatial heterogeneity obtained from quiet tidal breathing were comparable with the measures derived from the forced manoeuvres. SIGNIFICANCE: Measures of spatial and temporal ventilation heterogeneity obtained in COPD patients by EIT provide comparable findings during repeated examinations within one testing session. Quiet tidal breathing generates similar information on ventilation heterogeneity as forced manoeuvres that demand a high amount of patient effort.

Compressive sensing in electrical impedance tomography for breathing monitoring.

OBJECTIVE: Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) is a functional imaging technique in which cross-sectional images of structures are reconstructed based on boundary trans-impedance measurements. Continuous functional thorax monitoring using EIT has been extensively researched. Increasing the number of electrodes, number of planes and frame rate may improve clinical decision making. Thus, a limiting factor in high temporal resolution, 3D and fast EIT is the handling of the volume of raw impedance data produced for transmission and its subsequent storage. Owing to the periodicity (i.e. sparsity in frequency domain) of breathing and other physiological variations that may be reflected in EIT boundary measurements, data dimensionality may be reduced efficiently at the time of sampling using compressed sensing techniques. This way, a fewer number of samples may be taken. APPROACH: Measurements using a 32-electrode, 48-frames-per-second EIT system from 30 neonates were post-processed to simulate random demodulation acquisition method on 2000 frames (each consisting of 544 measurements) for compression ratios (CRs) ranging from 2 to 100. Sparse reconstruction was performed by solving the basis pursuit problem using SPGL1 package. The global impedance data (i.e. sum of all 544 measurements in each frame) was used in the subsequent studies. The signal to noise ratio (SNR) for the entire frequency band (0 Hz-24 Hz) and three local frequency bands were analysed. A breath detection algorithm was applied to traces and the subsequent error-rates were calculated while considering the outcome of the algorithm applied to a down-sampled and linearly interpolated version of the traces as the baseline. MAIN RESULTS: SNR degradation was generally proportional with CR. The mean degradation for 0 Hz-8 Hz (of interest for the target physiological variations) was below ~15 dB for all CRs. The error-rates in the outcome of the breath detection algorithm in the case of decompressed traces were lower than those associated with the corresponding down-sampled traces for CR ⩾ 25, corresponding to sub-Nyquist rate for breathing frequency. For instance, the mean error-rate associated with CR = 50 was ~60% lower than that of the corresponding down-sampled traces. SIGNIFICANCE: To the best of our knowledge, no other study has evaluated the applicability of compressive sensing techniques on raw boundary impedance data in EIT. While further research should be directed at optimising the acquisition and decompression techniques for this application, this contribution serves as the baseline for future efforts.

Optimized breath detection algorithm in electrical impedance tomography.

OBJECTIVE: This paper defines a method for optimizing the breath delineation algorithms used in electrical impedance tomography (EIT). In lung EIT the identification of the breath phases is central for generating tidal impedance variation images, subsequent data analysis and clinical evaluation. The optimisation of these algorithms is particularly important in neonatal care since the existing breath detectors developed for adults may give insufficient reliability in neonates due to their very irregular breathing pattern. APPROACH: Our approach is generic in the sense that it relies on the definition of a gold standard and the associated definition of detector sensitivity and specificity, an optimisation criterion and a set of detector parameters to be investigated. The gold standard has been defined by 11 clinicians with previous experience with EIT and the performance of our approach is described and validated using a neonatal EIT dataset acquired within the EU-funded CRADL project. MAIN RESULTS: Three different algorithms are proposed that improve the breath detector performance by adding conditions on (1) maximum tidal breath rate obtained from zero-crossings of the EIT breathing signal, (2) minimum tidal impedance amplitude and (3) minimum tidal breath rate obtained from time-frequency analysis. As a baseline a zero-crossing algorithm has been used with some default parameters based on the Swisstom EIT device. SIGNIFICANCE: Based on the gold standard, the most crucial parameters of the proposed algorithms are optimised by using a simple exhaustive search and a weighted metric defined in connection with the receiver operating characterics. This provides a practical way to achieve any desirable trade-off between the sensitivity and the specificity of the detectors.

Characteristic pattern of pleural effusion in electrical impedance tomography images of critically ill patients.

BACKGROUND: Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) is increasingly used for continuous monitoring of ventilation in intensive care patients. Clinical observations in patients with pleural effusion show an increase in out-of-phase impedance changes. We hypothesised that out-of-phase impedance changes are a typical EIT finding in patients with pleural effusion and could be useful in its detection. METHODS: We conducted a prospective observational study in intensive care unit patients with and without pleural effusion. In patients with pleural effusion, EIT data were recorded before, during, and after unilateral drainage of pleural effusion. In patients with no pleural effusion, EIT data were recorded without any intervention. EIT images were separated into four quadrants of equal size. We analysed the sum of out-of-phase impedance changes in the affected quadrant in patients with pleural effusion before, during, and after drainage and compared it with the sum of out-of-phase impedance changes in the dorsal quadrants of patients without pleural effusion. RESULTS: We included 20 patients with pleural effusion and 10 patients without pleural effusion. The median sum of out-of-phase impedance changes was 70 (interquartile range 49-119) arbitrary units (a.u.) in patients with pleural effusion before drainage, 25 (12-46) a.u. after drainage (P<0.0001) and 11 (6-17) a.u. in patients without pleural effusion (P<0.0001 vs pleural effusion before drainage). The area under the receiver operating characteristics curve was 0.96 (95% limits of agreement 0.91-1.01) between patients with pleural effusion before drainage and those without pleural effusion. CONCLUSIONS: In patients monitored with EIT, the presence of out-of-phase impedance changes is highly suspicious of pleural effusion and should trigger further examination.

Clinical performance of a novel textile interface for neonatal chest electrical impedance tomography.

OBJECTIVE: Critically ill neonates and infants might particularly benefit from continuous chest electrical impedance tomography (EIT) monitoring at the bedside. In this study a textile 32-electrode interface for neonatal EIT examination has been developed and tested to validate its clinical performance. The objectives were to assess ease of use in a clinical setting, stability of contact impedance at the electrode-skin interface and possible adverse effects. APPROACH: Thirty preterm infants (gestational age: 30.3 ± 3.9 week (mean ± SD), postnatal age: 13.8 ± 28.2 d, body weight at inclusion: 1727 ± 869 g) were included in this multicentre study. The electrode-skin contact impedances were measured continuously for up to 3 d and analysed during the initial 20-min phase after fastening the belt and during a 10 h measurement interval without any clinical interventions. The skin condition was assessed by attending clinicians. MAIN RESULTS: Our findings imply that the textile electrode interface is suitable for long-term neonatal chest EIT imaging. It does not cause any distress for the preterm infants or discomfort. Stable contact impedance of about 300 Ohm was observed immediately after fastening the electrode belt and during the subsequent 20 min period. A slight increase in contact impedance was observed over time. Tidal variation of contact impedance was less than 5 Ohm. SIGNIFICANCE: The availability of a textile 32-electrode belt for neonatal EIT imaging with simple, fast, accurate and reproducible placement on the chest strengthens the potential of EIT to be used for regional lung monitoring in critically ill neonates and infants.

Spontaneous breathing trials after prolonged mechanical ventilation monitored by electrical impedance tomography: an observational study.

BACKGROUND: The study objective was to examine the correlation between regional ventilation distribution measured with electrical impedance tomography (EIT) and weaning outcomes during spontaneous breathing trial (SBT). METHODS: Fifteen patients received 100% automatic tube compensation (ATC) during the first and 70% during the second hour. Another 15 patients received external continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) of 5 and 7.5 cmH2 O during the first and second hours, respectively. Regional ventilation distributions were monitored with EIT. RESULTS: Tidal volume and tidal variation of impedance correlated significantly during assist-control ventilation and ATC in all patients (r2 = 0.80 ± 0.18, P < 0.001). Higher support levels resulted in similar ventilation distribution and tidal volume, but higher end-expiratory lung impedance (EELI) (P < 0.05). Analysis of regional intratidal gas distribution revealed a redistribution of ventilation towards dorsal regions with lower support level in 13 of 30 patients. These patients had a higher weaning success rate (only 1 of 13 patients failed). Eight of 17 other patient failed (P < 0.05). The number of SBT days needed for weaning was significantly lower in the former group of 13 patients (13.1 ± 4.0 vs. 20.9 ± 11.2 days, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Regional ventilation distribution patterns during inspiration were associated with weaning outcomes, and they may be used to predict the success of extubation.

Global and regional assessment of sustained inflation pressure-volume curves in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Static or quasi-static pressure-volume (P-V ) curves can be used to determine the lung mechanical properties of patients suffering from acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). According to the traditional interpretation, lung recruitment occurs mainly below the lower point of maximum curvature (LPMC) of the inflation P-V curve. Although some studies have questioned this assumption, setting of positive end-expiratory pressure 2 cmH2O above the LPMC was part of a 'lung-protective' ventilation strategy successfully applied in several clinical trials. The aim of our study was to quantify the amount of unrecruited lung at different clinically relevant points of the P-V curve. APPROACH: P-V curves and electrical impedance tomography (EIT) data from 30 ARDS patients were analysed. We determined the regional opening pressures for every EIT image pixel and fitted the global P-V curves to five sigmoid model equations to determine the LPMC, inflection point (IP) and upper point of maximal curvature (UPMC). Points of maximal curvature and IP were compared between the models by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The percentages of lung pixels remaining closed ('unrecruited lung') at LPMC, IP and UPMC were calculated from the number of lung pixels exhibiting regional opening pressures higher than LPMC, IP and UPMC and were also compared by one-way ANOVA. MAIN RESULTS: As results, we found a high variability of LPMC values among the models, a smaller variability of IP and UPMC values. We found a high percentage of unrecruited lung at LPMC, a small percentage of unrecruited lung at IP and no unrecruited lung at UPMC. SIGNIFICANCE: Our results confirm the notion of ongoing lung recruitment at pressure levels above LPMC for all investigated model equations and highlight the importance of a regional assessment of lung recruitment in patients with ARDS.

[Health-related quality of life after mechanical ventilation in the intensive care unit]. / Gesundheitsbezogene Lebensqualität nach Beatmung auf der Intensivstation.

BACKGROUND: It is unknown whether health related quality of life measured in German patients one year after mechanical ventilation in the intensive care unit is impaired or not. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to assess health related quality of life one year after inclusion into a randomized controlled trial for weaning from mechanical ventilation with the help of a questionnaire that has never been used in critically ill patients and to investigate whether health related quality of life scores differ between the study population and a general German population. METHODS: We followed up with patients one year after inclusion into a randomized control trial investigating the effect of SmartCare/PS on total ventilation time compared to protocol-driven weaning (ASOPI trial, clinicaltrials.gov ID00445289). Health related quality of life was measured using the quality of life questionnaire C­30 version 3.0 from the European Organization of Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC). Mean differences of at least 10 score points in the quality of life scales were considered clinically significant. RESULTS: Of the 232 patients who were alive 90 days after study inclusion, 24 patients died one year after study inclusion and 64 patients were lost to follow-up. Of the remaining145 patients who were successfully contacted, 126 patients agreed to fill out the questionnaire. Questionnaires were sent back to the study site by 83 patients and these were analyzed. Health-related quality of life was significantly lower in five of the six functional scales (physical functioning, role functioning, cognitive functioning, social functioning, global health status) and in eight of the nine symptom scales (fatigue, pain, dyspnea, insomnia, appetite loss, constipation, diarrhea, financial difficulties) compared to the reference values of a German normal population. CONCLUSIONS: The EORTC QLQ-C30 questionnaire is suitable for the acquisition of the health-related quality of life in formerly critically ill patients. Health-related quality of life is severely impaired after mechanical ventilation in the intensive care unit. Future studies should consider health related quality of life as a possible study endpoint.

Influence of torso and arm positions on chest examinations by electrical impedance tomography.

Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) is increasingly used in patients suffering from respiratory disorders during pulmonary function testing (PFT). The EIT chest examinations often take place simultaneously to conventional PFT during which the patients involuntarily move in order to facilitate their breathing. Since the influence of torso and arm movements on EIT chest examinations is unknown, we studied this effect in 13 healthy subjects (37 ± 4 years, mean age ± SD) and 15 patients with obstructive lung diseases (72 ± 8 years) during stable tidal breathing. We carried out the examinations in an upright sitting position with both arms adducted, in a leaning forward position and in an upright sitting position with consecutive right and left arm elevations. We analysed the differences in EIT-derived regional end-expiratory impedance values, tidal impedance variations and their spatial distributions during all successive study phases. Both the torso and the arm movements had a highly significant influence on the end-expiratory impedance values in the healthy subjects (p = 0.0054 and p < 0.0001, respectively) and the patients (p < 0.0001 in both cases). The global tidal impedance variation was affected by the torso, but not the arm movements in both study groups (p = 0.0447 and p = 0.0418, respectively). The spatial heterogeneity of the tidal ventilation distribution was slightly influenced by the alteration of the torso position only in the patients (p = 0.0391). The arm movements did not impact the ventilation distribution in either study group. In summary, the forward torso movement and the arms' abduction exert significant effects on the EIT waveforms during tidal breathing. We recommend strict adherence to the upright sitting position during PFT when EIT is used.

Regional lung function determined by electrical impedance tomography during bronchodilator reversibility testing in patients with asthma.

The measurement of rapid regional lung volume changes by electrical impedance tomography (EIT) could determine regional lung function in patients with obstructive lung diseases during pulmonary function testing (PFT). EIT examinations carried out before and after bronchodilator reversibility testing could detect the presence of spatial and temporal ventilation heterogeneities and analyse their changes in response to inhaled bronchodilator on the regional level. We examined seven patients suffering from chronic asthma (49 ± 19 years, mean age ± SD) using EIT at a scan rate of 33 images s(-1) during tidal breathing and PFT with forced full expiration. The patients were studied before and 5, 10 and 20 min after bronchodilator inhalation. Seven age- and sex-matched human subjects with no lung disease history served as a control study group. The spatial heterogeneity of lung function measures was quantified by the global inhomogeneity indices calculated from the pixel values of tidal volume, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), peak flow and forced expiratory flow between 25% and 75% of FVC as well as histograms of pixel FEV1/FVC values. Temporal heterogeneity was assessed using the pixel values of expiration times needed to exhale 75% and 90% of pixel FVC. Regional lung function was more homogeneous in the healthy subjects than in the patients with asthma. Spatial and temporal ventilation distribution improved in the patients with asthma after the bronchodilator administration as evidenced mainly by the histograms of pixel FEV1/FVC values and pixel expiration times. The examination of regional lung function using EIT enables the assessment of spatial and temporal heterogeneity of ventilation distribution during bronchodilator reversibility testing. EIT may become a new tool in PFT, allowing the estimation of the natural disease progression and therapy effects on the regional and not only global level.

Influence of tidal volume on ventilation inhomogeneity assessed by electrical impedance tomography during controlled mechanical ventilation.

The global inhomogeneity (GI) index is a parameter of ventilation inhomogeneity that can be calculated from images of tidal ventilation distribution obtained by electrical impedance tomography (EIT). It has been suggested that the GI index may be useful for individual adjustment of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) and for guidance of ventilator therapy. The aim of the present work was to assess the influence of tidal volume (VT) on the GI index values. EIT data from 9 patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome ventilated with a low and a high VT of 5 ± 1 (mean ± SD) and 9 ± 1 ml kg(-1) predicted body weight at a high and a low level of PEEP (PEEPhigh, PEEPlow) were analyzed. PEEPhigh and PEEPlow were set 2 cmH2O above and 5 cmH2O below the lower inflection point of a quasi-static pressure volume loop, respectively. The lower inflection point was identified at 8.1 ± 1.4 (mean ± SD) cmH2O, resulting in a PEEPhigh of 10.1 ± 1.4 and a PEEPlow of 3.1 ± 1.4 cmH2O. At PEEPhigh, we found no significant trend in GI index with low VT when compared to high VT (0.49 ± 0.15 versus 0.44 ± 0.09, p = 0.13). At PEEPlow, we found a significantly higher GI index with low VT compared to high VT (0.66 ± 0.19 versus 0.59 ± 0.17, p = 0.01). When comparing the PEEP levels, we found a significantly lower GI index at PEEPhigh both for high and low VT. We conclude that high VT may lead to a lower GI index, especially at low PEEP settings. This should be taken into account when using the GI index for individual adjustment of ventilator settings.

Unilateral empyema impacts the assessment of regional lung ventilation by electrical impedance tomography.

Several studies have shown the ability of electrical impedance tomography (EIT) to assess regional ventilation distribution in human lungs. Fluid accumulation in the pleural space as in empyema, typically occurring on one chest side, may influence the distribution of ventilation and the corresponding EIT findings. The aim of our study was to examine this effect on the assessment of regional ventilation by EIT. Six patients suffering from unilateral empyema and intubated with a double-lumen endotracheal tube were studied. EIT data were acquired during volume-controlled ventilation with bilateral (tidal volume (V(T)): 800 ml) and unilateral ventilation (V(T): 400 ml) of the right and left lungs. Mean tidal amplitudes of the EIT signal were calculated in all image pixels. The sums of these values, expressed as relative impedance change (rel. ΔZ), were then determined in whole images and functionally defined regions-of-interest (ROI). The sums of rel. ΔZ calculated during the two cases of one-lung ventilation either on the affected or unaffected side were significantly smaller than during bilateral ventilation. However, in contrast to previous findings in patients with no pleural pathology, very low values of rel. ΔZ were found when the lung on the affected side was ventilated. ROI-based analysis rendered higher values than the whole-image analysis in this case, nonetheless, the values were significantly smaller than when the unaffected side was ventilated in spite of identical VT. In conclusion, our results indicate that the presence of empyema may affect the quantitative evaluation of regional lung ventilation by EIT.

Pulmonary function testing in children and infants.

Pulmonary function testing is performed in children and infants with the aim of documenting lung development with age and making diagnoses of lung diseases. In children and infants with an established lung disease, pulmonary function is tested to assess the disease progression and the efficacy of therapy. It is difficult to carry out the measurements in this age group without disturbances, so obtaining results of good quality and reproducibility is challenging. Young children are often uncooperative during the examinations. This is partly related to their young age but also due to the long testing duration and the unpopular equipment. We address a variety of examination techniques for lung function assessment in children and infants in this review. We describe the measuring principles, examination procedures, clinical findings and their interpretation, as well as advantages and limitations of these methods. The comparability between devices and centres as well as the availability of reference values are still considered a challenge in many of these techniques. In recent years, new technologies have emerged allowing the assessment of lung function not only on the global level but also on the regional level. This opens new possibilities for detecting regional lung function heterogeneity that might lead to a better understanding of respiratory pathophysiology in children.