A Highly Sensitive Molecular Technique for RNA Virus Detection.

Zika (ZIKV) and Chikungunya (CHIKV) viruses are mosquito-transmitted infections, or vector-borne pathogens, that emerged a few years ago. Reliable diagnostic tools for ZIKV and CHIKV-inexpensive, multiplexed, rapid, highly sensitive, and specific point-of-care (POC) systems-are vital for appropriate risk management and therapy. We recently studied a detection system with great success in Mexico (Villahermosa, state of Tabasco), working with human sera from patients infected with those viruses. The research conducted in Mexico validated the efficacy of a novel two-step rapid isothermal amplification technique (RAMP). This approach, which encompasses recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) followed by loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), had been previously established in the lab using lab-derived Zika (ZIKV) and Chikungunya (CHIKV) viruses. Crucially, our findings confirmed that this technique is also effective when applied to human sera samples collected from locally infected individuals in Mexico.

Antibodies Against Epstein-Barr Virus as Disease Markers of Gastric Cancer: A Systematic Review.

Introduction: Gastric cancer is the fourth deadliest cancer worldwide. Due to the lack of specific early symptoms and noninvasive methods for early detection, the prognosis of gastric cancer patients is poor. Gastric cancer has a well-recognized infectious etiology, with Helicobacter pylori and Epstein-Barr Virus being the main associated infectious agents. Although other Epstein-Barr Virus-associated malignancies often manifest with abnormal levels of anti-Epstein-Barr Virus antibodies, it is not clear whether this is also true for gastric cancer. Potentially, these antibodies could serve as a noninvasive tool for gastric cancer screening or as markers for gastric cancer risk and provide a better understanding of the participation of Epstein-Barr Virus in the development of this neoplasm. Methods: We conducted a systematic review of articles analyzing anti-Epstein-Barr Virus serology in gastric cancer and precursor lesions following PRISMA guidelines. Patients were classified according to the Correa cascade of gastric lesions and whether they were positive or negative by EBER-in situ hybridization (Epstein-Barr Virus-associated gastric cancer and Epstein-Barr Virus-nonassociated gastric cancer, respectively). Results: We retrieved 16 articles involving 9735 subjects from 12 different countries and 4 databases, PubMed, SciELO, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Higher antibody titers were observed not only in Epstein-Barr Virus-associated gastric cancer than in Epstein-Barr Virus-nonassociated gastric cancer but also in Epstein-Barr Virus-nonassociated gastric cancer and gastric cancer-precursor lesions when compared with patients with mild dyspepsia or healthy controls. In all cases, the associations were predominantly with antibodies directed against lytic cycle antigens. Conclusion: Data support the role of Epstein-Barr Virus lytic reactivation in the development of advanced gastric lesions. However, more studies are needed to confirm these associations, particularly the association with lesions considered negative by EBER-in situ hybridization, and to establish a set of antibodies and thresholds indicative of enhanced risk to develop these lesions.

IL-8 Secreted by Gastric Epithelial Cells Infected with Helicobacter pylori CagA Positive Strains Is a Chemoattractant for Epstein-Barr Virus Infected B Lymphocytes.

Helicobacter pylori and EBV are considered the main risk factors in developing gastric cancer. Both pathogens establish life-lasting infections and both are considered carcinogenic in humans. Different lines of evidence support that both pathogens cooperate to damage the gastric mucosa. Helicobacter pylori CagA positive virulent strains induce the gastric epithelial cells to secrete IL-8, which is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils and one of the most important chemokines for the bacterium-induced chronic gastric inflammation. EBV is a lymphotropic virus that persists in memory B cells. The mechanism by which EBV reaches, infects and persists in the gastric epithelium is not presently understood. In this study, we assessed whether Helicobacter pylori infection would facilitate the chemoattraction of EBV-infected B lymphocytes. We identified IL-8 as a powerful chemoattractant for EBV-infected B lymphocytes, and CXCR2 as the main IL-8 receptor whose expression is induced by the EBV in infected B lymphocytes. The inhibition of expression and/or function of IL-8 and CXCR2 reduced the ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK signaling and the chemoattraction of EBV-infected B lymphocytes. We propose that IL-8 at least partially explains the arrival of EBV-infected B lymphocytes to the gastric mucosa, and that this illustrates a mechanism of interaction between Helicobacter pylori and EBV.

Acral Melanoma Is Infiltrated with cDC1s and Functional Exhausted CD8 T Cells Similar to the Cutaneous Melanoma of Sun-Exposed Skin.

Acral melanoma (AM) is the most common melanoma in non-Caucasian populations, yet it remains largely understudied. As AM lacks the UV-radiation mutational signatures that characterize other cutaneous melanomas, it is considered devoid of immunogenicity and is rarely included in clinical trials assessing novel immunotherapeutic regimes aiming to recover the antitumor function of immune cells. We studied a Mexican cohort of melanoma patients from the Mexican Institute of Social Security (IMSS) (n = 38) and found an overrepresentation of AM (73.9%). We developed a multiparametric immunofluorescence technique coupled with a machine learning image analysis to evaluate the presence of conventional type 1 dendritic cells (cDC1) and CD8 T cells in the stroma of melanoma, two of the most relevant immune cell types for antitumor responses. We observed that both cell types infiltrate AM at similar and even higher levels than other cutaneous melanomas. Both melanoma types harbored programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1+) CD8 T cells and PD-1 ligand (PD-L1+) cDC1s. Despite this, CD8 T cells appeared to preserve their effector function and expanding capacity as they expressed interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and KI-67. The density of cDC1s and CD8 T cells significantly decreased in advanced stage III and IV melanomas, supporting these cells' capacity to control tumor progression. These data also argue that AM could respond to anti-PD-1-PD-L1 immunotherapy.

Epstein-Barr Virus Infection Is Associated with Elevated Hepcidin Levels.

EBV and Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) cause highly prevalent persistent infections as early as in childhood. Both pathogens are associated with gastric carcinogenesis. H. pylori interferes with iron metabolism, enhancing the synthesis of acute-phase proteins hepcidin, C-reactive protein (CRP), and α-1 glycoprotein (AGP), but we do not know whether EBV does the same. In this study, we correlated the EBV antibody levels and the serum levels of hepcidin, CRP, and AGP in 145 children from boarding schools in Mexico City. We found that children IgG positive to EBV antigens (VCA, EBNA1, and EA) presented hepcidin, AGP, and CRP levels higher than uninfected children. Hepcidin and AGP remained high in children solely infected with EBV, while CRP was only significantly high in coinfected children. We observed positive correlations between hepcidin and EBV IgG antibodies (p < 0.5). Using the TCGA gastric cancer database, we also observed an association between EBV and hepcidin upregulation. The TCGA database also allowed us to analyze the two important pathways controlling hepcidin expression, BMP−SMAD and IL-1ß/IL-6. We observed only the IL-1ß/IL-6-dependent inflammatory pathway being significantly associated with EBV infection. We showed here for the first time an association between EBV and enhanced levels of hepcidin. Further studies should consider EBV when evaluating iron metabolism and anemia, and whether in the long run this is an important mechanism of undernourishment and EBV gastric carcinogenesis.

Immunotherapy Options for Acral Melanoma, A fast-growing but Neglected Malignancy.

Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer. It is classified as cutaneous and non-cutaneous, with the former characterized by developing in sun-exposed areas of the skin, UV-light radiation being its most important risk factor and ordinarily affecting fair skin populations. In recent years, the incidence of melanoma has been increasing in populations with darker complexion, for example, Hispanics, in which acral melanoma is highly prevalent. The WHO estimates that the incidence and mortality of melanoma will increase by more than 60% by 2040, particularly in low/medium income countries. Acral melanoma appears in the palms, soles and nails, and because of these occult locations, it is often considered different from other cutaneous melanomas even though it also originates in the skin. Acral melanoma is very rare in Caucasian populations and is often not included from genetic analysis and clinical trials. In this review, we present the worldwide epidemiology of acral melanoma; we summarize its genetic characterization and point out important signaling pathways for targeted therapy. We also discuss how genetic analyses have shown that acral melanoma carries a sufficient mutational load and neoantigen formation to be targeted by the immune system, arguing for a potential benefit with novel immunotherapeutic strategies, alone or combined with targeted therapy. This is important because chemotherapy remains the first-line treatment in non-developed nations despite a disheartening response. In summary, the increased incidence and mortality of acral melanoma in low/medium income countries calls for increasing our knowledge about its nature and therapeutic options and leveling off the asymmetric research conducted primarily on Caucasian populations.

A Machine Learning Workflow of Multiplexed Immunofluorescence Images to Interrogate Activator and Tolerogenic Profiles of Conventional Type 1 Dendritic Cells Infiltrating Melanomas of Disease-Free and Metastatic Patients.

Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer. Due to its high mutation rates, melanoma is a convenient model to study antitumor immune responses. Dendritic cells (DCs) play a key role in activating cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes and directing them to kill tumor cells. Although there is evidence that DCs infiltrate melanomas, information about the profile of these cells, their activity states, and potential antitumor function remains unclear, particularly for conventional DCs type 1 (cDC1). Approaches to profiling tumor-infiltrating DCs are hindered by their diversity and the high number of signals that can affect their state of activation. Multiplexed immunofluorescence (mIF) allows the simultaneous analysis of multiple markers, but image-based analysis is time-consuming and often inconsistent among analysts. In this work, we evaluated several machine learning (ML) algorithms and established a workflow of nine-parameter image analysis that allowed us to study cDC1s in a reproducible and accessible manner. Using this workflow, we compared melanoma samples between disease-free and metastatic patients at diagnosis. We observed that cDC1s are more abundant in the tumor infiltrate of the former. Furthermore, cDC1s in disease-free patients exhibit an expression profile more congruent with an activator function: CD40highPD-L1low CD86+IL-12+. Although disease-free patients were also enriched with CD40-PD-L1+ cDC1s, these cells were also more compatible with an activator phenotype. The opposite was true for metastatic patients at diagnosis who were enriched for cDC1s with a more tolerogenic phenotype (CD40lowPD-L1highCD86-IL-12-IDO+). ML-based workflows like the one developed here can be used to analyze complex phenotypes of other immune cells and can be brought to laboratories with standard expertise and computer capacity.

Herpesvirus Screening in Childhood Hematopoietic Transplant Reveals High Systemic Inflammation in Episodes of Multiple Viral Detection and an EBV Association with Elevated IL-1ß, IL-8 and Graft-Versus-Host Disease.

Infections remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality among hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients. Unlike Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) and Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV), Human Herpesvirus (HHV) 6, HHV7 and HHV8 are not routinely monitored in many centers, especially in the pediatric population of low-medium income countries. We screened EBV, HCMV, HHV6, HHV7 and HHV8 in 412 leukocytes-plasma paired samples from 40 pediatric patients assisted in a tertiary hospital in Mexico. Thirty-two underwent allo-HSCT, whereas eight received auto-HSCT. Overall viral detection frequencies in allo- and auto-HSCT were: EBV = 43.7% and 30.0%, HCMV = 5.0% and 6.7%, HHV6 = 7.9% and 20.0% and HHV7 = 9.7% and 23.3%. HHV8 was not detected in any sample. Interestingly, HHV6 and HHV7 were more frequent in auto-HSCT, and HHV6 was observed in all episodes of multiple detection in auto-HSCT patients. We found EBV DNA in plasma samples, whereas HCMV, HHV6 and HHV7 DNA were predominantly observed in leukocytes, indicative of their expansion in cellular compartments. We also found that IL-1ß, IL-2, IL-6 and IL-8 were significantly increased in episodes in which multiple viruses were simultaneously detected, and samples positive for EBV DNA and graft-versus-host disease had a further increase of IL-1ß and IL-8. In conclusion, the EBV, HCMV, HHV6 and HHV7 burdens were frequently detected in allo- and auto-HSCT, and their presence associated with systemic inflammation.

Molecular and immune interactions between ß- and γ-herpesviruses in the immunocompromised host.

ß- and γ-herpesviruses persistently infect most of the world population, largely without clinical manifestations. However, in immunosuppressive settings like transplantation, these viruses are often jointly reactivated, associating with graft dysfunction/rejection, HCMV disease, and lymphoproliferation. In HIV/AIDS, direct interaction mechanisms have been described for EBV and KSHV in primary effusion lymphoma, demonstrating that the cooperation between both viruses enhances lymphomagenesis. Here, we discuss the clinical evidence supporting that the simultaneous reactivation of these viruses increases the probability of mutual interactions, also providing a conceptual framework explaining how one virus can influence another. Specifically, we propose mechanisms of indirect communication through immune soluble mediators, mainly cytokines, chemokines, and IFN regulatory molecules, based on common features of their infectious cycles and the convergent need on immunomodulatory mechanisms. This latter point should be experimentally addressed in feature research.

The Role of Coinfections in the EBV-Host Broken Equilibrium.

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a well-adapted human virus, and its infection is exclusive to our species, generally beginning in the childhood and then persisting throughout the life of most of the affected adults. Although this infection generally remains asymptomatic, EBV can trigger life-threatening conditions under unclear circumstances. The EBV lifecycle is characterized by interactions with other viruses or bacteria, which increases the probability of awakening its pathobiont capacity. For instance, EBV infects B cells with the potential to alter the germinal center reaction (GCR)-an adaptive immune structure wherein mutagenic-driven processes take place. HIV- and Plasmodium falciparum-induced B cell hyperactivation also feeds the GCR. These agents, along with the B cell tropic KSHV, converge in the ontogeny of germinal center (GC) or post-GC lymphomas. EBV oral transmission facilitates interactions with local bacteria and HPV, thereby increasing the risk of periodontal diseases and head and neck carcinomas. It is less clear as to how EBV is localized in the stomach, but together with Helicobacter pylori, they are known to be responsible for gastric cancer. Perhaps this mechanism is reminiscent of the local inflammation that attracts different herpesviruses and enhances graft damage and chances of rejection in transplanted patients. In this review, we discussed the existing evidence suggestive of EBV possessing the potential to synergize or cooperate with these agents to trigger or worsen the disease.

NLRP3 Regulates IL-4 Expression in TOX+ CD4+ T Cells of Cutaneous T Cell Lymphoma to Potentially Promote Disease Progression.

In cutaneous T cell lymphoma (CTCL), a dominant Th2 profile associated with disease progression has been proposed. Moreover, although the production and regulation of IL-4 expression during the early stages of the disease may have important implications in later stages, these processes are poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate the presence of TOX+ CD4+ T cells that produce IL-4+ in early-stage skin lesions of CTCL patients and reveal a complex mechanism by which the NLRP3 receptor promotes a Th2 response by controlling IL-4 production. Unassembled NLRP3 is able to translocate to the nucleus of malignant CD4+ T cells, where it binds to the human il-4 promoter. Accordingly, IL-4 expression is decreased by knocking down and increased by promoting the nuclear localization of NLRP3. We describe a positive feedback loop in which IL-4 inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome assembly, thereby further increasing its production. IL-4 induced a potentially malignant phenotype measured based on TOX expression and proliferation. This mechanism of IL-4 regulation mediated by NLRP3 is amplified in late-stage CTCL associated with disease progression. These results indicate that NLRP3 might be a key regulator of IL-4 expression in TOX+ CD4+ T cells of CTCL patients and that this mechanism might have important implications in the progression of the disease.

Claudin-Low Breast Cancer Inflammatory Signatures Support Polarization of M1-Like Macrophages with Protumoral Activity.

We previously reported that triple-negative breast cancer (BRCA) cells overexpress the cytokines GM-CSF, G-CSF, MCP-1, and RANTES, and when monocytes were 3-D co-cultured with them, M1-like macrophages were generated with the ability to induce aggressive features in luminal BRCA cell lines. These include upregulation of mesenchymal and stemness markers and invasion. In this study, we stimulated peripheral blood monocytes with the four cytokines and confirmed their capacity to generate protumoral M1-like macrophages. Using the METABRIC BRCA database, we observed that GM-CSF, MCP-1, and RANTES are associated with triple-negative BRCA and reduced overall survival, particularly in patients under 55 years of age. We propose an extended M1-like macrophage proinflammatory signature connected with these three cytokines. We found that the extended M1-like macrophage signature coexists with monocyte/macrophage, Th1 immune response, and immunosuppressive signatures, and all are enriched in claudin-low BRCA samples, and correlate with reduced patient overall survival. Furthermore, we observed that all these signatures are also present in mesenchymal carcinomas of the colon (COAD) and bladder (BLCA). The claudin-low tumor subtype has an adverse clinical outcome and remains poorly understood. This study places M1 macrophages as potential protumoral drivers in already established cancers, and as potential contributors to claudin-low aggressiveness and poor prognosis.

Prolactin Increases the Frequency of Follicular T Helper Cells with Enhanced IL21 Secretion and OX40 Expression in Lupus-Prone MRL/lpr Mice.

Systemic lupus erythematosus is characterized by high levels of IgG class autoantibodies that contribute to the pathophysiology of the disease. The formation of these autoantibodies occurs in the germinal centers, where there is cooperation between follicular T helper cells (TFH) and autoreactive B cells. Prolactin has been reported to exacerbate the clinical manifestations of lupus by increasing autoantibody concentrations. The objective of this study was to characterize the participation of prolactin in the differentiation and activation of TFH cells, by performing in vivo and in vitro tests with lupus-prone mice, using flow cytometry and real-time PCR. We found that TFH cells express the long isoform of the prolactin receptor and promoted STAT3 phosphorylation. Receptor expression was higher in MRL/lpr mice and correlative with the manifestations of the disease. Although prolactin does not intervene in the differentiation of TFH cells, it does favor their activation by increasing the percentage of TFH OX40+ and TFH IL21+ cells, as well as leading to high serum concentrations of IL21. These results support a mechanism in which prolactin participates in the emergence of lupus by inducing overactive TFH cells and perhaps promoting dysfunctional germinal centers.

Prolactin Rescues Immature B Cells from Apoptosis-Induced BCR-Aggregation through STAT3, Bcl2a1a, Bcl2l2, and Birc5 in Lupus-Prone MRL/lpr Mice.

Self-reactive immature B cells are eliminated through apoptosis by tolerance mechanisms, failing to eliminate these cells results in autoimmune diseases. Prolactin is known to rescue immature B cells from B cell receptor engagement-induced apoptosis in lupus-prone mice. The objective of this study was to characterize in vitro prolactin signaling in immature B cells, using sorting, PCR array, RT-PCR, flow cytometry, and chromatin immunoprecipitation. We found that all B cell maturation stages in bone marrow express the prolactin receptor long isoform, in both wild-type and MRL/lpr mice, but its expression increased only in the immature B cells of the latter, particularly at the onset of lupus. In these cells, activation of the prolactin receptor promoted STAT3 phosphorylation and upregulation of the antiapoptotic Bcl2a1a, Bcl2l2, and Birc5 genes. STAT3 binding to the promoter region of these genes was confirmed through chromatin immunoprecipitation. Furthermore, inhibitors of prolactin signaling and STAT3 activation abolished the prolactin rescue of self-engaged MRL/lpr immature B cells. These results support a mechanism in which prolactin participates in the emergence of lupus through the rescue of self-reactive immature B cell clones from central tolerance clonal deletion through the activation of STAT3 and transcriptional regulation of a complex network of genes related to apoptosis resistance.

Chemoresistance in Breast Cancer Patients Associated With Changes in P2X7 and A2A Purinergic Receptors in CD8+ T Lymphocytes.

Breast cancer (BRCA) is the most frequent cancer type that afflicts women. Unfortunately, despite all the current therapeutic strategies, many patients develop chemoresistance hampering the efficacy of treatment. Hence, an early indicator of therapy efficacy might aid in the search for better treatment and patient survival. Although emerging evidence indicates a key role of the purinergic receptors P2X7 and A2A in cancer, less is known about their involvement in BRCA chemoresistance. In this sense, as the chemotherapeutic treatment stimulates immune system response, we evaluated the expression and function of P2X7 and A2A receptors in CD8+ T cells before and four months after BRCA patients received neoadjuvant chemotherapy. The results showed an increase in the levels of expression of P2X7 and a decrease in the expression of A2A in CD8+ T cells in non-chemoresistant (N-CHR) patients, compared to chemoresistant (CHR) patients. Interestingly, in CHR patients, reduced expression of P2X7 occurs along with a decrease in the CD62L shedding and the production of IFN-γ. In the case of the A2A function, the inhibition of IFN-γ production was not observed after chemotherapy in CHR patients. A possible relationship between the modulation of the expression and function of the P2X7 and A2A receptors was found, according to the molecular subtypes, where the patients that were triple-negative and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-enriched presented more alterations. Comorbidities such as overweight/obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) participate in the abnormalities detected. Our results demonstrate the importance of purinergic signaling in CD8+ T cells during chemoresistance, and it could be considered to implement personalized therapeutic strategies.

Induction of Progenitor Exhausted Tissue-Resident Memory CD8+ T Cells Upon Salmonella Typhi Porins Adjuvant Immunization Correlates With Melanoma Control and Anti-PD-1 Immunotherapy Cooperation.

Immunotherapy has improved the clinical response in melanoma patients, although a relevant percentage of patients still cannot be salvaged. The search for the immune populations that provide the best tumor control and that can be coaxed by immunotherapy strategies is a hot topic in cancer research nowadays. Tumor-infiltrating TCF-1+ progenitor exhausted CD8+ T cells seem to grant the best melanoma prognosis and also efficiently respond to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy, giving rise to a TIM-3+ terminally exhausted population with heightened effector activity. We tested Porins from Salmonella Typhi as a pathogen associated molecular pattern adjuvant of natural or model antigen in prophylactic and therapeutic immunization approaches against murine melanoma. Porins induced protection against melanomas, even upon re-challenging of tumor-free mice. Porins efficiently expanded IFN-γ-producing CD8+ T cells and induced central and effector memory in lymph nodes and tissue-resident (Trm) T cells in the skin and tumors. Porins induced TCF-1+ PD-1+ CD8+ Trm T cells in the tumor stroma and the presence of this population correlated with melanoma growth protection in mice. Porins immunization also cooperated with anti-PD-1 immunotherapy to hamper melanoma growth. Importantly, the potentially protective Trm populations induced by Porins in the murine model were also observed in melanoma patients in which their presence also correlated with disease control. Our data support the use of cancer vaccination to sculpt the tumor stroma with efficient and lasting Trm T cells with effector activities, highlighting the use of Porins as an adjuvant. Furthermore, our data place CD8+ Trm T cells with a progenitor exhausted phenotype as an important population for melanoma control, either independently or in cooperation with anti-PD-1 immunotherapy.

A Bioinformatic Pipeline Places STAT5A as a miR-650 Target in Poorly Differentiated Aggressive Breast Cancer.

Breast cancer (BRCA) is a leading cause of mortality among women. Tumors often acquire aggressive features through genomic aberrations affecting cellular programs, e.g., the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). EMT facilitates metastasis leading to poor prognosis. We previously observed a correlation between an amplification of miR-650 (Amp-650) and EMT features in BRCA samples isolated from Mexican patients. In this study, we explored the cBioportal database aiming to extend that observation and better understand the importance of Amp-650 for BRCA aggressiveness. We found that Amp-650 is more frequent in aggressive molecular subtypes of BRCA, as well as in high grade poorly differentiated tumors, which we confirmed in an external miRNA expression database. We performed differential expression analysis on samples harboring Amp-650, taking advantage of gene target prediction tools and tumor suppressor gene databases to mine several hundreds of differentially underexpressed genes. We observed STAT5A as a likely putative target gene for miR-650 in aggressive poorly differentiated BRCA. Samples with both Amp-650 and low expression of STAT5A had less overall survival than samples with either or none of the alterations. No target gene has been described for miR-650 in BRCA, thus, this bioinformatic study provides valuable information that should be corroborated experimentally.

Lymphotropic Viruses EBV, KSHV and HTLV in Latin America: Epidemiology and Associated Malignancies. A Literature-Based Study by the RIAL-CYTED.

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV) and human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1) are lymphomagenic viruses with region-specific induced morbidity. The RIAL-CYTED aims to increase the knowledge of lymphoma in Latin America (LA), and, as such, we systematically analyzed the literature to better understand our risk for virus-induced lymphoma. We observed that high endemicity regions for certain lymphomas, e.g., Mexico and Peru, have a high incidence of EBV-positive lymphomas of T/NK cell origin. Peru also carries the highest frequency of EBV-positive classical Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and EBV-positive diffuse large B cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified (NOS), than any other LA country. Adult T cell lymphoma is endemic to the North of Brazil and Chile. While only few cases of KSHV-positive lymphomas were found, in spite of the close correlation of Kaposi sarcoma and the prevalence of pathogenic types of KSHV. Both EBV-associated HL and Burkitt lymphoma mainly affect young children, unlike in developed countries, in which adolescents and young adults are the most affected, correlating with an early EBV seroconversion for LA population despite of lack of infectious mononucleosis symptoms. High endemicity of KSHV and HTLV infection was observed among Amerindian populations, with differences between Amazonian and Andean populations.

Detection of Epstein-Barr Virus DNA in Gastric Biopsies of Pediatric Patients with Dyspepsia.

In this study, we assessed the presence of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in gastric samples derived from pediatric patients with dyspeptic symptoms, aiming to understand whether EBV participates in the development of early gastric lesions influencing chronic inflammation, in conjunction with the Helicobacter pylori (Hp) bacterium. We analyzed EBV load in 236 gastric biopsies derived from 186 pediatric patients with chronic dyspepsia and compared it with EBV serology, Hp load and serology, and with immune cell infiltration. We found that 7.5% of patients were positive for EBV load, ranging from 240 to 29,685 genomic copies/µg of DNA. Hp genomic sequences were found in 24.7% of patients. EBV positive samples did not correlate with Hp status and were characterized by absent to moderate immune cell infiltration. To our knowledge, this is the first study addressing EBV load in the stomach in a large cohort of pediatric patients with dyspeptic symptoms, providing evidence of EBV localization in the gastric mucosa in early inflammatory lesions. The lack of correlation between EBV and both Hp infection and inflammation is perhaps explained by independent pathogenic mechanisms or because of the randomness of the gastritis sampling. This is also supported by a moderate association between EBV load and serology.

An In Vitro Model of Mast Cell Recruitment and Activation by Breast Cancer Cells Supports Anti-Tumoral Responses.

Breast cancer (BrC) affects millions of women yearly. Mast cells (MCs) are common components of breast tumors with documented agonistic and antagonistic roles in tumor progression. Understanding the participation of MCs in BrC may lead to new therapies to control tumor growth. In this study, we looked into mechanistic models of MC responses triggered by BrC cells (BrCC), assessing both early degranulation and late transcriptional activities. We used aggressive and non-aggressive BrCC to model the progressive staging of the disease over HMC1 and LAD-2 human MC lines. We found that both MC lines were chemoattracted by all BrCC, but their activation was preferentially induced by aggressive lines, finding differences in their active transcriptional programs, both at basal level and after stimulation. Among those genes with altered expression were down-regulated SPP1, PDCD1, IL17A and TGFB1 and up-regulated KITLG and IFNG. A low expression of SPP1 and a high expression of KITLG and IFNG were associated with increased overall survival of BrC patients from public databases. The set of altered genes is more often associated with tumor stromas enriched with anti-tumoral signals, suggesting that MCs may participate in tumor control.