Prenatal exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, fetoplacental hemodynamics, and fetal growth.

INTRODUCTION: The impact of legacy per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) on fetal growth has been well studied, but assessments of next-generation PFAS and PFAS mixtures are sparse and the potential role of fetoplacental hemodynamics has not been studied. We aimed to evaluate associations between prenatal PFAS exposure and fetal growth and fetoplacental hemodynamics. METHODS: We included 747 pregnant women from the BiSC birth cohort (Barcelona, Spain (2018-2021)). Twenty-three PFAS were measured at 32 weeks of pregnancy in maternal plasma, of which 13 were present above detectable levels. Fetal growth was measured by ultrasound, as estimated fetal weight at 32 and 37 weeks of gestation, and weight at birth. Doppler ultrasound measurements for uterine (UtA), umbilical (UmA), and middle cerebral artery (MCA) pulsatility indices (PI), as well as the cerebroplacental ratio (CPR - ratio MCA to UmA), were obtained at 32 weeks to assess fetoplacental hemodynamics. We applied linear mixed effects models to assess the association between singular PFAS and longitudinal fetal growth and PI, and Bayesian Weighted Quantile Sum models to evaluate associations between the PFAS mixture and the aforementioned outcomes, controlled for the relevant covariates. RESULTS: Single PFAS and the mixture tended to be associated with reduced fetal growth and CPR PI, but few associations reached statistical significance. Legacy PFAS PFOS, PFHpA, and PFDoDa were associated with statistically significant decreases in fetal weight z-score of 0.13 (95%CI (-0.22, -0.04), 0.06 (-0.10, 0.01), and 0.05 (-0.10, 0.00), respectively, per doubling of concentration. The PFAS mixture was associated with a non-statistically significant 0.09 decrease in birth weight z-score (95%CI -0.22, 0.04) per quartile increase. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that legacy PFAS may be associated with reduced fetal growth, but associations for next generation PFAS and for the PFAS mixture were less conclusive. Associations between PFAS and fetoplacental hemodynamics warrant further investigation.

Prenatal Exposure to Chemical Mixtures and Metabolic Syndrome Risk in Children.

Importance: Prenatal exposure to ubiquitous endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) may increase the risk of metabolic syndrome (MetS) in children, but few studies have studied chemical mixtures or explored underlying protein and metabolic signatures. Objective: To investigate associations of prenatal exposure to EDC mixtures with MetS risk score in children and identify associated proteins and metabolites. Design, Setting, and Participants: This population-based, birth cohort study used data collected between April 1, 2003, and February 26, 2016, from the Human Early Life Exposome cohort based in France, Greece, Lithuania, Norway, Spain, and the UK. Eligible participants included mother-child pairs with measured prenatal EDC exposures and complete data on childhood MetS risk factors, proteins, and metabolites. Data were analyzed between October 2022 and July 2023. Exposures: Nine metals, 3 organochlorine pesticides, 5 polychlorinated biphenyls, 2 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), 5 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), 10 phthalate metabolites, 3 phenols, 4 parabens, and 4 organophosphate pesticide metabolites measured in urine and blood samples collected during pregnancy. Main Outcomes and Measures: At 6 to 11 years of age, a composite MetS risk score was constructed using z scores of waist circumference, systolic and diastolic blood pressures, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and insulin levels. Childhood levels of 44 urinary metabolites, 177 serum metabolites, and 35 plasma proteins were quantified using targeted methods. Associations were assessed using bayesian weighted quantile sum regressions applied to mixtures for each chemical group. Results: The study included 1134 mothers (mean [SD] age at birth, 30.7 [4.9] years) and their children (mean [SD] age, 7.8 [1.5] years; 617 male children [54.4%] and 517 female children [45.6%]; mean [SD] MetS risk score, -0.1 [2.3]). MetS score increased per 1-quartile increase of the mixture for metals (ß = 0.44; 95% credible interval [CrI], 0.30 to 0.59), organochlorine pesticides (ß = 0.22; 95% CrI, 0.15 to 0.29), PBDEs (ß = 0.17; 95% CrI, 0.06 to 0.27), and PFAS (ß = 0.19; 95% CrI, 0.14 to 0.24). High-molecular weight phthalate mixtures (ß = -0.07; 95% CrI, -0.10 to -0.04) and low-molecular weight phthalate mixtures (ß = -0.13; 95% CrI, -0.18 to -0.08) were associated with a decreased MetS score. Most EDC mixtures were associated with elevated proinflammatory proteins, amino acids, and altered glycerophospholipids, which in turn were associated with increased MetS score. Conclusions and Relevance: This cohort study suggests that prenatal exposure to EDC mixtures may be associated with adverse metabolic health in children. Given the pervasive nature of EDCs and the increase in MetS, these findings hold substantial public health implications.

Prenatal Exposure to Multiple Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals and Childhood BMI Trajectories in the INMA Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Prenatal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) may disrupt normal fetal and postnatal growth. Studies have mainly focused on individual aspects of growth at specific time points using single chemical exposure models. However, humans are exposed to multiple EDCs simultaneously, and growth is a dynamic process. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the associations between prenatal exposure to EDCs and children's body mass index (BMI) growth trajectories using single exposure and mixture modeling approaches. METHODS: Using data from the INfancia y Medio Ambiente (INMA) Spanish birth cohort (n=1,911), prenatal exposure to persistent chemicals [hexachlorobenzene (HCB), 4-4'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB-138, -150, and -180), 4 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)] and nonpersistent chemicals (8 phthalate metabolites, 7 phenols) was assessed using blood and spot urine concentrations. BMI growth trajectories were calculated from birth to 9 years of age using latent class growth analysis. Multinomial regression was used to assess associations for single exposures, and Bayesian weighted quantile sum (BWQS) regression was used to evaluate the EDC mixture's association with child growth trajectories. RESULTS: In single exposure models exposure to HCB, DDE, PCBs, and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) were associated with increased risk of belonging to a trajectory of lower birth size followed by accelerated BMI gain by 19%-32%, compared with a trajectory of average birth size and subsequent slower BMI gain [e.g., relative risk ratio (RRR) per doubling in DDE concentration=1.19 (95% CI: 1.05, 1.35); RRR for PFNA=1.32 (95% CI: 1.05, 1.66)]. HCB and DDE exposure were also associated with higher probability of belonging to a trajectory of higher birth size and accelerated BMI gain. Results from the BWQS regression showed the mixture was positively associated with increased odds of belonging to a BMI trajectory of lower birth size and accelerated BMI gain (odds ratio per 1-quantile increase of the mixture=1.70; credible interval: 1.03, 2.61), with HCB, DDE, and PCBs contributing the most. DISCUSSION: This study provides evidence that prenatal EDC exposure, particularly persistent EDCs, may lead to BMI trajectories in childhood characterized by accelerated BMI gain. Given that accelerated growth is linked to a higher disease risk in later life, continued research is important. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11103.

Prenatal exposure to mixtures of phthalates and phenols and body mass index and blood pressure in Spanish preadolescents.

BACKGROUND: Pregnant women are simultaneously exposed to several non-persistent endocrine-disrupting chemicals, which may influence the risk of childhood obesity and cardiovascular diseases later in life. Previous prospective studies have mostly examined single-chemical effects, with inconsistent findings. We assessed the association between prenatal exposure to phthalates and phenols, individually and as a mixture, and body mass index (BMI) and blood pressure (BP) in preadolescents. METHODS: We used data from the Spanish INMA birth cohort study (n = 1,015), where the 1st and 3rd- trimester maternal urinary concentrations of eight phthalate metabolites and six phenols were quantified. At 11 years of age, we calculated BMI z-scores and measured systolic and diastolic BP. We estimated individual chemical effects with linear mixed models and joint effects of the chemical mixture with hierarchical Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR). Analyses were stratified by sex and by puberty status. RESULTS: In single-exposure models, benzophenone-3 (BP3) was nonmonotonically associated with higher BMI z-score (e.g. Quartile (Q) 3: ß = 0.23 [95% CI = 0.03, 0.44] vs Q1) and higher diastolic BP (Q2: ß = 1.27 [0.00, 2.53] mmHg vs Q1). Methyl paraben (MEPA) was associated with lower systolic BP (Q4: ß = -1.67 [-3.31, -0.04] mmHg vs Q1). No consistent associations were observed for the other compounds. Results from the BKMR confirmed the single-exposure results and showed similar patterns of associations, with BP3 having the highest importance in the mixture models, especially among preadolescents who reached puberty status. No overall mixture effect was found, except for a tendency of higher BMI z-score and lower systolic BP in girls. CONCLUSIONS: Prenatal exposure to UV-filter BP3 may be associated with higher BMI and diastolic BP during preadolescence, but there is little evidence for an overall phthalate and phenol mixture effect.

State-of-the-art methods for exposure-health studies: Results from the exposome data challenge event.

The exposome recognizes that individuals are exposed simultaneously to a multitude of different environmental factors and takes a holistic approach to the discovery of etiological factors for disease. However, challenges arise when trying to quantify the health effects of complex exposure mixtures. Analytical challenges include dealing with high dimensionality, studying the combined effects of these exposures and their interactions, integrating causal pathways, and integrating high-throughput omics layers. To tackle these challenges, the Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal) held a data challenge event open to researchers from all over the world and from all expertises. Analysts had a chance to compete and apply state-of-the-art methods on a common partially simulated exposome dataset (based on real case data from the HELIX project) with multiple correlated exposure variables (P > 100 exposure variables) arising from general and personal environments at different time points, biological molecular data (multi-omics: DNA methylation, gene expression, proteins, metabolomics) and multiple clinical phenotypes in 1301 mother-child pairs. Most of the methods presented included feature selection or feature reduction to deal with the high dimensionality of the exposome dataset. Several approaches explicitly searched for combined effects of exposures and/or their interactions using linear index models or response surface methods, including Bayesian methods. Other methods dealt with the multi-omics dataset in mediation analyses using multiple-step approaches. Here we discuss features of the statistical models used and provide the data and codes used, so that analysts have examples of implementation and can learn how to use these methods. Overall, the exposome data challenge presented a unique opportunity for researchers from different disciplines to create and share state-of-the-art analytical methods, setting a new standard for open science in the exposome and environmental health field.

Prenatal exposure to persistent organic pollutants and markers of obesity and cardiometabolic risk in Spanish adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Prenatal exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) has been linked to cardiometabolic (CM) risk factors in childhood, but there are no studies evaluating the persistence of these associations into adolescence, a period of relevant changes in endocrine-dependent organ systems and rapid increases in lean and fat mass. We examined the associations of prenatal POP exposures with body mass index (BMI) from age 4 to 18 years, and with other CM risk markers in adolescence. METHODS: We analysed 379 children from the Spanish INMA-Menorca birth cohort study with measured cord blood POP concentrations. We calculated BMI z-scores at ages 4, 6, 11, 14 and 18 years using the WHO growth reference. Body fat % was measured at 11 and 18 years and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) and blood pressure (BP) at 11, 14 and 18 years. We measured CM biomarkers in fasting blood collected at age 14 years and calculated a CM-risk score as the sum of the sex-, and age-specific z-scores for waist circumference, mean arterial BP, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance, fasting blood triglycerides, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) (n = 217). Generalised estimating equations and multivariate linear regression models assessed the associations with repeated and single time-point measures, respectively. RESULTS: Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) exposure in the third tertile, compared to the first tertile, was associated with higher BMI (ß = 0.24; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.47) and WHtR z-score (ß = 0.27; 95% CI: 0.04, 0.51). A continuous increase in HCB was associated with an elevated body fat % (ß per 10-fold increase = 4.21; 95% CI: 0.51, 7.92), systolic BP (ß = 0.32; 95% CI: 0.02, 0.64) and diastolic BP z-score (ß = 0.32; 95% CI: 0.02, 0.62) across all ages, and with higher CM-risk score (ß = 1.59; 95% CI: 0.02, 3.18) and lipid biomarkers (total cholesterol, triglycerides and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C)) at 14 years. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (p,p'-DDT) exposure was non-monotonically associated with BMI and systolic BP. p,p'-DDE and Σ-polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (sum of congeners 118, 138, 153, 180) were not associated with adiposity or BP. p,p'-DDT exposure was associated with an increased CM-risk score, and ΣPCBs concentrations with LDL-C in all adolescents and with total cholesterol only in girls (p-sex interaction = 0.05). CONCLUSION: This first longitudinal study from 4 to 18 years suggests that the previously reported POP associations with child BMI persist later in adolescence and that prenatal POP exposures are associated with major risk factors for adult CM syndrome.