Novel benzimidazole angiotensin receptor blockers with anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity equipotent to that of nirmatrelvir: computational and enzymatic studies.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension worsens outcomes in SARS-CoV-2 patients. Sartans, a type of antihypertensive angiotensin receptor blocker-(ARB), reduce COVID-19 morbidity and mortality by targeting angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2). This study aimed to evaluate the antiviral and antihypertensive effects of nirmatrelvir, commercial sartans (candesartan, losartan, and losartan carboxylic (Exp3174)), and newly synthesized sartans (benzimidazole-N-biphenyl carboxyl (ACC519C) and benzimidazole-N-biphenyl tetrazole (ACC519T)), compared to nirmatrelvir, the antiviral component of Paxlovid. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and enzymatic studies assessed drug effects on ACE2. Antiviral abilities were tested with SARS-CoV-2-infected Vero E6 cells, and antihypertensive effects were evaluated using angiotensin II-contracted rabbit iliac arteries. RESULTS: Benzimidazole-based candesartan and ACC519C showed antiviral activity comparable to nirmatrelvir (95% inhibition). Imidazole-based losartan, Exp3174, and ACC519T were less potent (75%-80% and 50%, respectively), with Exp3174 being the least effective. SPR analysis indicated high sartans-ACE2 binding affinity. Candesartan and nirmatrelvir combined had greater inhibitory and cytopathic effects (3.96%) than individually (6.10% and 5.08%). ACE2 enzymatic assays showed varying effects of novel sartans on ACE2. ACC519T significantly reduced angiotensin II-mediated contraction, unlike nirmatrelvir and ACC519T(2). CONCLUSION: This study reports the discovery of a new class of benzimidazole-based sartans that significantly inhibit SARS-CoV-2, likely due to their interaction with ACE2.

Structural Features Influencing the Bioactive Conformation of Angiotensin II and Angiotensin A: Relationship between Receptor Desensitization, Addiction, and the Blood-Brain Barrier.

The N-terminal portion of the octapeptide angiotensin II (DRVYIHPF; AngII), a vasopressor peptide that favorably binds to, and activates, AngII type 1 receptor (AT1R), has an important role in maintaining bioactive conformation. It involves all three charged groups, namely (i) the N-terminal amino group cation, (ii) the Asp sidechain anion and (iii) the Arg guanidino cation. Neutralization of any one of these three charged groups results in a substantial reduction (<5%) in bioactivity, implicating a specialized function for this cluster. In contrast, angiotensin A (ARVYIHPF; AngA) has reduced bioactivity at AT1R; however, replacement of Asp in AngII with sarcosine (N-methyl-glycine) not only restores bioactivity but increases the activity of agonist, antagonist, and inverse agonist analogues. A bend produced at the N-terminus by the introduction of the secondary amino acid sarcosine is thought to realign the functional groups that chaperone the C-terminal portion of AngII, allowing transfer of the negative charge originating at the C-terminus to be transferred to the Tyr hydroxyl-forming tyrosinate anion, which is required to activate the receptor and desensitizes the receptor (tachyphylaxis). Peptide (sarilesin) and nonpeptide (sartans) moieties, which are long-acting inverse agonists, appear to desensitize the receptor by a mechanism analogous to tachyphylaxis. Sartans/bisartans were found to bind to alpha adrenergic receptors resulting in structure-dependent desensitization or resensitization. These considerations have provided information on the mechanisms of receptor desensitization/tolerance and insights into possible avenues for treating addiction. In this regard sartans, which appear to cross the blood-brain barrier more readily than bisartans, are the preferred drug candidates.

Angiotensin II constricts mouse iliac arteries: possible mechanism for aortic aneurysms.

Abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAA) result from maladaptive remodeling of the vascular wall and reduces structural integrity. Angiotensin II (AngII) infusion has become a standard laboratory model for studying AAA initiation and progression. We determined the different vasoactive responses of various mouse arteries to Ang II. Ex vivo isometric tension analysis was conducted on 18-week-old male C57BL/6 mice (n = 4) brachiocephalic arteries (BC), iliac arteries (IL), and abdominal (AA) and thoracic aorta (TA). Arterial rings were mounted between organ hooks, gently stretched and an AngII dose response was performed. Rings were placed in 4% paraformaldehyde for immunohistochemistry analysis to quantify peptide expression of angiotensin type 1 (AT1R) and 2 receptors (AT2R) in the endothelium, media, and adventitia. Results from this study demonstrated vasoconstriction responses in IL were significantly higher at all AngII doses when compared to BC, and TA and AA responses (maximum constriction-IL: 68.64 ± 5.47% vs. BC: 1.96 ± 1.00%; TA: 3.13 ± 0.16% and AA: 2.75 ± 1.77%, p < 0.0001). Expression of AT1R was highest in the endothelium of IL (p < 0.05) and in the media and (p < 0.05) adventitia (p < 0.05) of AA. In contrast, AT2R expression was highest in endothelium (p < 0.05), media (p < 0.01, p < 0.05) and adventitia of TA. These results suggest that mouse arteries display different vasoactive responses to AngII, and the exaggerated response in IL arteries may play a role during AAA development.

Existence of Quantum Pharmacology in Sartans: Evidence in Isolated Rabbit Iliac Arteries.

Quantum pharmacology introduces theoretical models to describe the possibility of ultra-high dilutions to produce biological effects, which may help to explain the placebo effect observed in hypertensive clinical trials. To determine this within physiology and to evaluate novel ARBs, we tested the ability of known angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) (candesartan and telmisartan) used to treat hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases, as well as novel ARBs (benzimidazole-N-biphenyl tetrazole (ACC519T), benzimidazole-bis-N,N'-biphenyl tetrazole (ACC519T(2)) and 4-butyl-N,N0-bis[[20-2Htetrazol-5-yl)biphenyl-4-yl]methyl)imidazolium bromide (BV6(K+)2), and nirmatrelvir (the active ingredient in Paxlovid) to modulate vascular contraction in iliac rings from healthy male New Zealand White rabbits in responses to various vasopressors (angiotensin A, angiotensin II and phenylephrine). Additionally, the hemodynamic effect of ACC519T and telmisartan on mean arterial pressure in conscious rabbits was determined, while the ex vivo ability of BV6(K+)2 to activate angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) was also investigated. We show that commercially available and novel ARBs can modulate contraction responses at ultra-high dilutions to different vasopressors. ACC519T produced a dose-dependent reduction in rabbit mean arterial pressure while BV6(K+)2 significantly increased ACE2 metabolism. The ability of ARBs to inhibit contraction responses even at ultra-low concentrations provides evidence of the existence of quantum pharmacology. Furthermore, the ability of ACC519T and BV6(K+)2 to modulate blood pressure and ACE2 activity, respectively, indicates their therapeutic potential against hypertension.

Glycyrrhizic Acid Inhibits High-Mobility Group Box-1 and Homocysteine-Induced Vascular Dysfunction.

Hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) worsens cardiovascular outcomes by impairing vascular function and promoting chronic inflammation via release of danger-associated molecular patterns, such as high-mobility group box-1 (HMGB-1). Elevated levels of HMGB-1 have recently been reported in patients with HHcy. Therefore, targeting HMGB-1 may be a potential therapy to improve HHcy-induced cardiovascular pathologies. This study aimed to further elucidate HMGB-1's role during acute HHcy and HHcy-induced atherogenesis and to determine if inhibiting HMGB-1 with glycyrrhizic acid (Glyz) improved vascular function. Male New Zealand White rabbits (n = 25) were placed on either a standard control chow (CD; n = 15) or atherogenic diet (AD; n = 10) for 4 weeks. Rabbit serum and Krebs taken from organ bath studies were collected to quantify HMGB-1 levels. Isometric tension analysis was performed on abdominal aorta (AA) rings from CD and AD rabbits. Rings were incubated with homocysteine (Hcy) [3 mM] for 60 min to induce acute HHcy or rhHMGB-1 [100 nM]. Vascular function was assessed by relaxation to cumulative doses of acetylcholine. Markers of vascular dysfunction and inflammation were quantified in the endothelium, media, and adventitia of AA rings. HMGB-1 was significantly upregulated in serum (p < 0.0001) and Krebs (p < 0.0001) after Hcy exposure or an AD. Incubation with Hcy (p < 0.0001) or rhHMGB-1 (p < 0.0001) and an AD (p < 0.0001) significantly reduced relaxation to acetylcholine, which was markedly improved by Glyz. HMGB-1 expression was elevated (p < 0.0001) after Hcy exposure and AD (p < 0.0001) and was normalized after Glyz treatment. Moreover, markers of vascular function, cell stress and inflammation were also reduced after Glyz. These results demonstrate that HMGB-1 has a central role during HHcy-induced vascular dysfunction and inhibiting it with Glyz could be a potential treatment option for cardiovascular diseases.

Combination of Taurine and Black Pepper Extract as a Treatment for Cardiovascular and Coronary Artery Diseases.

The shift in modern dietary regimens to "Western style" and sedentary lifestyles are believed to be partly responsible for the increase in the global burden of cardiovascular diseases. Natural products have been used throughout human history as treatments for a plethora of pathological conditions. Taurine and, more recently, black pepper have gained attention for their beneficial health effects while remaining non-toxic even when ingested in excess. Taurine, black pepper, and the major terpene constituents found in black pepper (i.e., ß-caryophyllene; α-pinene; ß-pinene; α-humulene; limonene; and sabinene) that are present in PhytoCann BP® have been shown to have cardioprotective effects based on anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, anti-hypertensive and anti-atherosclerotic mechanisms. This comprehensive review of the literature focuses on determining whether the combination of taurine and black pepper extract is an effective natural treatment for reducing cardiovascular diseases risk factors (i.e., hypertension and hyperhomocysteinemia) and for driving anti-inflammatory, antioxidative and anti-atherosclerotic mechanisms to combat coronary artery disease, heart failure, myocardial infarction, and atherosclerotic disease.

Role of Angiotensin II in Cardiovascular Diseases: Introducing Bisartans as a Novel Therapy for Coronavirus 2019.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the main contributors to global morbidity and mortality. Major pathogenic phenotypes of CVDs include the development of endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and hyper-inflammatory responses. These phenotypes have been found to overlap with the pathophysiological complications of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). CVDs have been identified as major risk factors for severe and fatal COVID-19 states. The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is an important regulatory system in cardiovascular homeostasis. However, its dysregulation is observed in CVDs, where upregulation of angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT1R) signaling via angiotensin II (AngII) leads to the AngII-dependent pathogenic development of CVDs. Additionally, the interaction between the spike protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 with angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 leads to the downregulation of the latter, resulting in the dysregulation of the RAS. This dysregulation favors AngII/AT1R toxic signaling pathways, providing a mechanical link between cardiovascular pathology and COVID-19. Therefore, inhibiting AngII/AT1R signaling through angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) has been indicated as a promising therapeutic approach to the treatment of COVID-19. Herein, we review the role of AngII in CVDs and its upregulation in COVID-19. We also provide a future direction for the potential implication of a novel class of ARBs called bisartans, which are speculated to contain multifunctional targeting towards COVID-19.

Association of anthropometric and body composition parameters with the presence of hypertension in the Central European population: results from KardioVize 2030 study.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension is one of the most prevalent chronic non-communicable diseases and affects more than 60% of individuals over 60 years of age. Additionally, hypertension is a prominent risk factor for the development of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Human body composition is both the result and predictor of an individual's health status, and hypertension has consistently been shown to be more prevalent among obese individuals. In the current study, we focussed on the association between body composition parameters and hypertension occurrence. METHODS: Data from KardioVize 2030, a population-based study (n = 1988), was used to determine the association between the body composition parameters related to both fat and water content with hypertension. Body composition was assessed using the direct segmental multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis method (DSM-BIA). RESULTS: Using logistic regression modelling we found that the majority of hypertension incidence could be determined by body fat and water content, as hypertension occurrence was positively correlated with increased fat-related body composition parameters and water content. Specifically, results from this study demonstrate that increased intracellular fluid was positively associated with higher hypertension incidence in men (14%) and women (16%). CONCLUSION: Body composition reflects the occurrence of hypertension and may serve as a novel therapeutic goal that can be easily implemented in the clinical setting using DSM-BIA.

Cisplatin treatment reduces contraction to angiotensin II by altering expression of angiotensin II receptors: a pilot study.

The renin angiotensin system is a key regulator of blood pressure homeostasis. Angiotensin type 1 (AT1R) and 2 receptors (AT2R) have been investigated as targets for cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury; however, their therapeutic potential remains inconclusive. This pilot study aimed to determined the effect that acute cisplatin treatment had on angiotensin II (AngII)-induced contraction in blood vessels and expression profiles of AT1R and AT2R in mouse arteries and kidneys. Male C57BL/6 mice at 18 week of age (n = 8) were treated with vehicle or bolus dose of cisplatin (12.5 mg/kg). Thoracic aorta (TA), adnominal aorta (AA), brachiocephalic arteries (BC), iliac arteries (IL) and kidneys were collected for isometric tension and immunohistochemistry analysis. Cisplatin treatment reduced IL contraction to AngII at all doses (p < 0.01, p < 0.001, p < 0.0001); however, AngII did not induce contraction in TA, AA or BC in either treatment group. Following cisplatin treatment, AT1R expression was significantly upregulated in the media of TA (p < 0.0001) and AA (p < 0.0001), and in the endothelium (p < 0.05) media (p < 0.0001) and adventitia (p < 0.01) of IL. Cisplatin treatment significantly reduced AT2R expression in the endothelium (p < 0.05) and media (p < 0.05) of TA. In renal tubules, both AT1R (p < 0.01) and AT2R (p < 0.05) were increased following cisplatin treatment. Herein, we report that cisplatin reduces AngII-mediated contraction in IL and may be explained by an absence of normal counterregulatory expression of AT1R and AT2R, indicating other factors are involved.

Diminazene Aceturate Reduces Angiotensin II Constriction and Interacts with the Spike Protein of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2.

Diminazene aceturate (DIZE) is a putative angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) activator and angiotensin type 1 receptor antagonist (AT1R). Its simple chemical structure possesses a negatively charged triazene segment that is homologous to the tetrazole of angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB), which explains its AT1R antagonistic activity. Additionally, the activation of ACE2 by DIZE converts the toxic octapeptide angiotensin II (AngII) to the heptapeptides angiotensin 1-7 and alamandine, which promote vasodilation and maintains homeostatic balance. Due to DIZE's protective cardiovascular and pulmonary effects and its ability to target ACE2 (the predominant receptor utilized by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 to enter host cells), it is a promising treatment for coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19). To determine DIZE's ability to inhibit AngII constriction, in vitro isometric tension analysis was conducted on rabbit iliac arteries incubated with DIZE or candesartan and constricted with cumulative doses of AngII. In silico docking and ligand interaction studies were performed to investigate potential interactions between DIZE and other ARBs with AT1R and the spike protein/ACE2 complex. DIZE, similar to the other ARBs investigated, was able to abolish vasoconstriction in response to AngII and exhibited a binding affinity for the spike protein/ACE2 complex (PDB 6LZ6). These results support the potential of DIZE as a treatment for COVID-19.

Understanding the Driving Forces That Trigger Mutations in SARS-CoV-2: Mutational Energetics and the Role of Arginine Blockers in COVID-19 Therapy.

SARS-CoV-2 is a global challenge due to its ability to mutate into variants that spread more rapidly than the wild-type virus. Because the molecular biology of this virus has been studied in such great detail, it represents an archetypal paradigm for research into new antiviral drug therapies. The rapid evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in the human population is driven, in part, by mutations in the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike (S-) protein, some of which enable tighter binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE2). More stable RBD-ACE2 association is coupled with accelerated hydrolysis of furin and 3CLpro cleavage sites that augment infection. Non-RBD and non-interfacial mutations assist the S-protein in adopting thermodynamically favorable conformations for stronger binding. The driving forces of key mutations for Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, Kappa, Lambda and Omicron variants, which stabilize the RBD-ACE2 complex, are investigated by free-energy computational approaches, as well as equilibrium and steered molecular dynamic simulations. Considered also are the structural hydropathy traits of the residues in the interface between SARS-CoV-2 RBD and ACE2 protein. Salt bridges and π-π interactions are critical forces that create stronger complexes between the RBD and ACE2. The trend of mutations is the replacement of non-polar hydrophobic interactions with polar hydrophilic interactions, which enhance binding of RBD with ACE2. However, this is not always the case, as conformational landscapes also contribute to a stronger binding. Arginine, the most polar and hydrophilic among the natural amino acids, is the most aggressive mutant amino acid for stronger binding. Arginine blockers, such as traditional sartans that bear anionic tetrazoles and carboxylates, may be ideal candidate drugs for retarding viral infection by weakening S-protein RBD binding to ACE2 and discouraging hydrolysis of cleavage sites. Based on our computational results it is suggested that a new generation of "supersartans", called "bisartans", bearing two anionic biphenyl-tetrazole pharmacophores, are superior to carboxylates in terms of their interactions with viral targets, suggesting their potential as drugs in the treatment of COVID-19. In Brief: This in silico study reviews our understanding of molecular driving forces that trigger mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 virus. It also reports further studies on a new class of "supersartans" referred to herein as "bisartans", bearing two anionic biphenyltetrazole moieties that show potential in models for blocking critical amino acids of mutants, such as arginine, in the Delta variant. Bisartans may also act at other targets essential for viral infection and replication (i.e., ACE2, furin cleavage site and 3CLpro), rendering them potential new drugs for additional experimentation and translation to human clinical trials.

Discovery of a new generation of angiotensin receptor blocking drugs: Receptor mechanisms and in silico binding to enzymes relevant to SARS-CoV-2.

The discovery and facile synthesis of a new class of sartan-like arterial antihypertensive drugs (angiotensin receptor blockers [ARBs]), subsequently referred to as "bisartans" is reported. In vivo results and complementary molecular modelling presented in this communication indicate bisartans may be beneficial for the treatment of not only heart disease, diabetes, renal dysfunction, and related illnesses, but possibly COVID-19. Bisartans are novel bis-alkylated imidazole sartan derivatives bearing dual symmetric anionic biphenyl tetrazole moieties. In silico docking and molecular dynamics studies revealed bisartans exhibited higher binding affinities for the ACE2/spike protein complex (PDB 6LZG) compared to all other known sartans. They also underwent stable docking to the Zn2 + domain of the ACE2 catalytic site as well as the critical interfacial region between ACE2 and the SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain. Additionally, semi-stable docking of bisartans at the arginine-rich furin-cleavage site of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (residues 681-686) required for virus entry into host cells, suggest bisartans may inhibit furin action thereby retarding viral entry into host cells. Bisartan tetrazole groups surpass nitrile, the pharmacophoric "warhead" of PF-07321332, in its ability to disrupt the cysteine charge relay system of 3CLpro. However, despite the apparent targeting of multifunctional sites, bisartans do not inhibit SARS-CoV-2 infection in bioassays as effectively as PF-07321332 (Paxlovid).

Receptor Interactions of Angiotensin II and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers-Relevance to COVID-19.

Angiotensin II (Ang II) may contain a charge relay system (CRS) involving Tyr/His/carboxylate, which creates a tyrosinate anion for receptor activation. Energy calculations were carried out to determine the preferred geometry for the CRS in the presence and absence of the Arg guanidino group occupying position 2 of Ang II. These findings suggest that Tyr is preferred over His for bearing the negative charge and that the CRS is stabilized by the guanidino group. Recent crystallography studies provided details of the binding of nonpeptide angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) to the Ang II type 1 (AT1) receptor, and these insights were applied to Ang II. A model of binding and receptor activation that explains the surmountable and insurmountable effects of Ang II analogues sarmesin and sarilesin, respectively, was developed and enabled the discovery of a new generation of ARBs called bisartans. Finally, we determined the ability of the bisartan BV6(TFA) to act as a potential ARB, demonstrating similar effects to candesartan, by reducing vasoconstriction of rabbit iliac arteries in response to cumulative doses of Ang II. Recent clinical studies have shown that Ang II receptor blockers have protective effects in hypertensive patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, the usage of ARBS to block the AT1 receptor preventing the binding of toxic angiotensin implicated in the storm of cytokines in SARS-CoV-2 is a target treatment and opens new avenues for disease therapy.

Flavonoids as an effective sensitizer for anti-cancer therapy: insights into multi-faceted mechanisms and applicability towards individualized patient profiles.

Cost-efficacy of currently applied treatments is an issue in overall cancer management challenging healthcare and causing tremendous economic burden to societies around the world. Consequently, complex treatment models presenting concepts of predictive diagnostics followed by targeted prevention and treatments tailored to the personal patient profiles earn global appreciation as benefiting the patient, healthcare economy, and the society at large. In this context, application of flavonoids as a spectrum of compounds and their nano-technologically created derivatives is extensively under consideration, due to their multi-faceted anti-cancer effects applicable to the overall cost-effective cancer management, primary, secondary, and even tertiary prevention. This article analyzes most recently updated data focused on the potent capacity of flavonoids to promote anti-cancer therapeutic effects and interprets all the collected research achievements in the frame-work of predictive, preventive, and personalized (3P) medicine. Main pillars considered are: - Predictable anti-neoplastic, immune-modulating, drug-sensitizing effects; - Targeted molecular pathways to improve therapeutic outcomes by increasing sensitivity of cancer cells and reversing their resistance towards currently applied therapeutic modalities.

Mechanisms of Cisplatin-Induced Acute Kidney Injury: Pathological Mechanisms, Pharmacological Interventions, and Genetic Mitigations.

Administration of the chemotherapeutic agent cisplatin leads to acute kidney injury (AKI). Cisplatin-induced AKI (CIAKI) has a complex pathophysiological map, which has been linked to cellular uptake and efflux, apoptosis, vascular injury, oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress, and inflammation. Despite research efforts, pharmaceutical interventions, and clinical trials spanning over several decades, a consistent and stable pharmacological treatment option to reduce AKI in patients receiving cisplatin remains unavailable. This has been predominately linked to the incomplete understanding of CIAKI pathophysiology and molecular mechanisms involved. Herein, we detail the extensively known pathophysiology of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity that manifests and the variety of pharmacological and genetic alteration studies that target them.

Can SARS-CoV-2 Virus Use Multiple Receptors to Enter Host Cells?

The occurrence of the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), responsible for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVD-19), represents a catastrophic threat to global health. Protruding from the viral surface is a densely glycosylated spike (S) protein, which engages angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) to mediate host cell entry. However, studies have reported viral susceptibility in intra- and extrapulmonary immune and non-immune cells lacking ACE2, suggesting that the S protein may exploit additional receptors for infection. Studies have demonstrated interactions between S protein and innate immune system, including C-lectin type receptors (CLR), toll-like receptors (TLR) and neuropilin-1 (NRP1), and the non-immune receptor glucose regulated protein 78 (GRP78). Recognition of carbohydrate moieties clustered on the surface of the S protein may drive receptor-dependent internalization, accentuate severe immunopathological inflammation, and allow for systemic spread of infection, independent of ACE2. Furthermore, targeting TLRs, CLRs, and other receptors (Ezrin and dipeptidyl peptidase-4) that do not directly engage SARS-CoV-2 S protein, but may contribute to augmented anti-viral immunity and viral clearance, may represent therapeutic targets against COVID-19.

The Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Taurine on Cardiovascular Disease.

Taurine is a non-protein amino acid that is expressed in the majority of animal tissues. With its unique sulfonic acid makeup, taurine influences cellular functions, including osmoregulation, antioxidation, ion movement modulation, and conjugation of bile acids. Taurine exerts anti-inflammatory effects that improve diabetes and has shown benefits to the cardiovascular system, possibly by inhibition of the renin angiotensin system. The beneficial effects of taurine are reviewed.

The potential actions of angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2) activator diminazene aceturate (DIZE) in various diseases.

The renin angiotensin system (RAS) regulates fluid balance, blood pressure and maintains vascular tone. The potent vasoconstrictor angiotensin II (Ang II) produced by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) comprises the classical RAS. The non-classical RAS involves the conversion of Ang II via ACE2 into the vasodilator Ang (1-7) to counterbalance the effects of Ang II. Furthermore, ACE2 converts AngA into another vasodilator named alamandine. The over activation of the classical RAS (increased vasoconstriction) and depletion of the non-classical RAS (decreased vasodilation) results in vascular dysfunction. Vascular dysfunction is the leading cause of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Additionally, local RAS is expressed in various tissues and regulates cellular functions. RAS dysregulation is involved in other several diseases such as inflammation, renal dysfunction and even cancer growth. An approach in restoring vascular dysfunction and other pathological diseases is to either increase the activity of ACE2 or reduce the effect of the classical RAS by counterbalancing Ang II effects. The antitrypanosomal agent, diminazene aceturate (DIZE), is one approach in activating ACE2. DIZE has been shown to exert beneficial effects in CVD experimental models of hypertension, myocardial infarction, type 1 diabetes and atherosclerosis. Thus, this review focuses on DIZE and its effect in several tissues such as blood vessels, cardiac, renal, immune and cancer cells.