A sulfated carbohydrate epitope inhibits axon regeneration after injury.

Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) represent a major barrier to regenerating axons in the central nervous system (CNS), but the structural diversity of their polysaccharides has hampered efforts to dissect the structure-activity relationships underlying their physiological activity. By taking advantage of our ability to chemically synthesize specific oligosaccharides, we demonstrate that a sugar epitope on CSPGs, chondroitin sulfate-E (CS-E), potently inhibits axon growth. Removal of the CS-E motif significantly attenuates the inhibitory activity of CSPGs on axon growth. Furthermore, CS-E functions as a protein recognition element to engage receptors including the transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPσ, thereby triggering downstream pathways that inhibit axon growth. Finally, masking the CS-E motif using a CS-E-specific antibody reversed the inhibitory activity of CSPGs and stimulated axon regeneration in vivo. These results demonstrate that a specific sugar epitope within chondroitin sulfate polysaccharides can direct important physiological processes and provide new therapeutic strategies to regenerate axons after CNS injury.

Activation of phospholipase C pathways by a synthetic chondroitin sulfate-E tetrasaccharide promotes neurite outgrowth of dopaminergic neurons.

In dopaminergic neurons, chondroitin sulfate (CS) proteoglycans play important roles in neuronal development and regeneration. However, due to the complexity and heterogeneity of CS, the precise structure of CS with biological activity and the molecular mechanisms underlying its influence on dopaminergic neurons are poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the ability of synthetic CS oligosaccharides and natural polysaccharides to promote the neurite outgrowth of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons and the signaling pathways activated by CS. CS-E polysaccharide, but not CS-A, -C or -D polysaccharide, facilitated the neurite outgrowth of dopaminergic neurons at CS concentrations within the physiological range. The stimulatory effect of CS-E polysaccharide on neurite outgrowth was completely abolished by its digestion into disaccharide units with chondroitinase ABC. Similarly to CS-E polysaccharide, a synthetic tetrasaccharide displaying only the CS-E sulfation motif stimulated the neurite outgrowth of dopaminergic neurons, whereas a CS-E disaccharide or unsulfated tetrasaccharide had no effect. Analysis of the molecular mechanisms revealed that the action of the CS-E tetrasaccharide was mediated through midkine-pleiotrophin/protein tyrosine phosphatase zeta and brain-derived neurotrophic factor/tyrosine kinase B receptor pathways, followed by activation of the two intracellular phospholipase C (PLC) signaling cascades: PLC/protein kinase C and PLC/inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate/inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor signaling leading to intracellular Ca(2+) concentration-dependent activation of Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase II and calcineurin. These results indicate that a specific sulfation motif, in particular the CS-E tetrasaccharide unit, represents a key structural determinant for activation of midkine, pleiotrophin and brain-derived neurotrophic factor-mediated signaling, and is required for the neuritogenic activity of CS in dopaminergic neurons.

Sulfation patterns of glycosaminoglycans encode molecular recognition and activity.

Although glycosaminoglycans contribute to diverse physiological processes, an understanding of their molecular mechanisms has been hampered by the inability to access homogeneous glycosaminoglycan structures. Here, we assembled well-defined chondroitin sulfate oligosaccharides using a convergent, synthetic approach that permits installation of sulfate groups at precise positions along the carbohydrate backbone. Using these defined structures, we demonstrate that specific sulfation motifs function as molecular recognition elements for growth factors and modulate neuronal growth. These results provide both fundamental insights into the role of sulfation and direct evidence for a 'sulfation code' whereby glycosaminoglycans encode functional information in a sequence-specific manner analogous to that of DNA, RNA and proteins.

Protein fucosylation regulates synapsin Ia/Ib expression and neuronal morphology in primary hippocampal neurons.

Although fucose-alpha(1-2)-galactose [Fucalpha(1-2)Gal] carbohydrates have been implicated in cognitive processes such as long-term memory, the molecular mechanisms by which these sugars influence neuronal communication are not well understood. Here, we present molecular insights into the functions of Fucalpha(1-2)Gal sugars, demonstrating that they play a role in the regulation of synaptic proteins and neuronal morphology. We show that synapsins Ia and Ib, synapse-specific proteins involved in neurotransmitter release and synaptogenesis, are the major Fucalpha(1-2)Gal glycoproteins in mature cultured neurons and the adult rat hippocampus. Fucosylation has profound effects on the expression and turnover of synapsin in cells and protects synapsin from degradation by the calcium-activated protease calpain. Our studies suggest that defucosylation of synapsin has critical consequences for neuronal growth and morphology, leading to stunted neurite outgrowth and delayed synapse formation. We also demonstrate that Fucalpha(1-2)Gal carbohydrates are not limited to synapsin but are found on additional glycoproteins involved in modulating neuronal architecture. Together, our studies identify important roles for Fucalpha(1-2)Gal sugars in the regulation of neuronal proteins and morphological changes that may underlie synaptic plasticity.

Chemical approaches to deciphering the glycosaminoglycan code.

Glycosaminoglycans are sulfated biopolymers with rich chemical diversity and complex functions in vivo, contributing to processes ranging from cell growth and neuronal development to viral invasion and neurodegenerative disease. Recent studies suggest that glycosaminoglycans may encode information in the form of a 'sulfation code,' whereby discrete modifications to the polysaccharide backbone may direct the location or activities of proteins.

A role for fucose alpha(1-2) galactose carbohydrates in neuronal growth.

We report a fucose alpha(1-2) galactose-mediated pathway for the modulation of neuronal growth and morphology. Our studies provide strong evidence for the presence of Fucalpha(1-2)Gal glycoproteins and lectin receptors in hippocampal neurons. Additionally, we show that manipulation of Fucalpha(1-2)Gal-associated proteins using small-molecule and lectin probes induces dramatic changes in neuronal morphology. These findings may provide a novel pathway to stimulate neuronal growth and regeneration.

A chondroitin sulfate small molecule that stimulates neuronal growth.

Chondroitin sulfate glycosaminoglycans are sulfated polysaccharides involved in cell division, neuronal development, and spinal cord injury. Here, we report the synthesis and identification of a chondroitin sulfate tetrasaccharide that stimulates the growth and differentiation of neurons. These studies represent the first, direct investigations into the structure-activity relationships of chondroitin sulfate using homogeneous synthetic molecules and define a tetrasaccharide as a minimal motif required for activity.