Pneumothorax in sports: issues in recognition and follow-up care.

Spontaneous and traumatic pneumothoraces are rare conditions found occasionally in athletes. Although generally not life-threatening, these conditions can be fatal if not appropriately diagnosed and managed. Expedient diagnosis depends on a thorough understanding of possible presenting signs and symptoms such as chest pain, dyspnea, and diminished breath sounds. A chest radiograph may be required for definitive diagnosis. Management depends on the size, stability, and type of pneumothorax and may include serial monitoring, tube thoracostomy, pleurodesis, or apical resection. Return-to-play guidelines after pneumothorax have not been previously published. We present recomendations based on a review of published case reports, our clinical experience, and communication with North American sports medicine providers.

The informed consent process and the use of the exception to informed consent in the clinical trial of diaspirin cross-linked hemoglobin (DCLHb) in severe traumatic hemorrhagic shock. DCLHb Traumatic Hemorrhagic Shock study group.

UNLABELLED: In the clinical trial of diaspirin cross-linked hemoglobin (DCLHb), optimal therapy required the immediate enrollment of patients with severe, uncompensated, traumatic hemorrhagic shock. When it was not feasible to obtain prospective consent, an exception to informed consent was used according to FDA regulation 21 CFR 50.24. OBJECTIVES: To examine the informed consent process and the use of the consent exception and consent to continue (CTC), and to describe the patients for whom this process was used. METHODS: This was a multicenter, randomized, controlled, single-blinded efficacy trial of DCLHb as an adjunct to standard therapy in the treatment of severe, traumatic hemorrhagic shock. Patients with unstable vital signs or a critical base deficit were treated, with a primary study endpoint of 28-day mortality. RESULTS: During the 11-month study period, 112 patients were randomized in 18 U.S. trauma centers, and data from 98 of the infused patients were analyzed. Prospective consent was obtained from two patients, three family members, and one legally authorized representative (LAR) (6%). Consent to continue was requested for 89 patients (89%), and full participation was granted for 87 of these patients (98%). Consent to continue was provided by 54 (98%) of the 55 patients approached. The mean number of days for family/LAR CTC was 1.1 +/-3.8 days, and 50% of the time it was obtained on the day of study enrollment. Patient CTC was obtained in an average of 13 +/- 23 days, with a median of four days. Patients treated in this protocol were more likely to have sustained penetrating trauma than the overall trauma patient population treated in these trauma centers (44% vs 21%, p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Informed consent in this study of an emergent therapy most often involved the use of the consent exception and consent to continue, the latter of which occurred in a timely manner. Nearly all of those who were approached for CTC approved full participation in the study, suggesting acceptance of the process outlined in the new regulations. Patients treated in a hemorrhagic shock clinical trial may differ from the general trauma patient population.

A multi-institutional study of factors associated with fetal death in injured pregnant patients.

HYPOTHESIS: Factors associated with fetal death in injured pregnant patients are related to increasing injury severity and abnormal maternal physiologic profile. DESIGN: A multi-institutional retrospective study of 13 level I and level II trauma centers from 1992 to 1996. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Fetal survival. RESULTS: Of 27,715 female admissions, there were 372 injured pregnant patients (1.3%); 84% had blunt injuries and 16% had penetrating injuries. There were 14 maternal deaths (3.8%) and 35 fetal deaths (9.4%). The population suffering fetal death had higher injury severity scores (P<.001), lower Glascow Coma Scale scores (P<.001), and lower admitting maternal pH (P = .002). Most women who lost their fetus arrived in shock (P = .005) or had a fetal heart rate of less than 110 beats/min at some time during their hospitalization (P<.001). An Injury Severity Score greater than 25 was associated with a 50% incidence of fetal death. Placental abruption was the most frequent complication, occurring in 3.5% of patients and associated with 54% mortality. Cardiotrophic monitoring to detect potentially threatening fetal heart rates was performed on only 61% of pregnant women in their third trimester. Of these patients, 7 had abnormalities on cardiotrophic monitoring and underwent successful cesarean delivery. CONCLUSIONS: Fetal death was more likely with greater severity of injury. Cardiotrophic monitoring is underused in injured pregnant patients in their third trimester even after admission to major trauma centers. Increased use of cardiotrophic monitoring may decrease the mortality caused by placental abruption.

Diaspirin cross-linked hemoglobin (DCLHb) in the treatment of severe traumatic hemorrhagic shock: a randomized controlled efficacy trial.

CONTEXT: Severe, uncompensated, traumatic hemorrhagic shock causes significant morbidity and mortality, but resuscitation with an oxygen-carrying fluid might improve patient outcomes. OBJECTIVE: To determine if the infusion of up to 1000 mL of diaspirin cross-linked hemoglobin (DCLHb) during the initial hospital resuscitation could reduce 28-day mortality in traumatic hemorrhagic shock patients. DESIGN AND SETTING: Multicenter, randomized, controlled, single-blinded efficacy trial conducted between February 1997 and January 1998 at 18 US trauma centers selected for their high volume of critically injured trauma patients, but 1 did not enroll patients. PATIENTS: A total of 112 patients with traumatic hemorrhagic shock and unstable vital signs or a critical base deficit, who had a mean (SD) patient age of 39 (20) years. Of the infused patients, 79% were male and 56% were white. An exception to informed consent was used when necessary. INTERVENTION: All patients were to be infused with 500 mL of DCLHb or saline solution. Critically ill patients who still met entry criteria could have received up to an additional 500 mL during the 1-hour infusion period. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Twenty-eight day mortality, 28-day morbidity, 48-hour mortality, and 24-hour lactate levels. RESULTS: Of the 112 patients, 98 (88%) were infused with DCLHb or saline solution. At 28 days, 24 (46%) of the 52 patients infused with DCLHb died, and 8 (17%) of the 46 patients infused with the saline solution died (P = .003). At 48 hours, 20 (38%) of the 52 patients infused with DCLHb died and 7 (15%) of the 46 patients infused with the saline solution died (P = .01). The 28-day morbidity rate, as measured by the multiple organ dysfunction score, was 72% higher in the DCLHb group (P = .03). There was no difference in adverse event rates or the 24-hour lactate levels. CONCLUSIONS: Mortality was higher for patients treated with DCLHb. Although further analysis should investigate whether the mortality difference was solely due to a direct treatment effect or to other factors, DCLHb does not appear to be an effective resuscitation fluid.

Mortality in patients with bilateral femoral fractures.

OBJECTIVES: To determine and compare the mortality rates of patients with bilateral versus unilateral femoral fractures and to determine the contribution of the femoral fracture to, and identify risk factors for, such mortality. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective analysis using trauma registry data on consecutive blunt trauma patients with unilateral (800 patients, group I) or bilateral (eighty-five patients, group II) femoral fractures. METHODS: Univariate data analysis was performed to compare the groups' ages, Injury Severity Scores, Glasgow Coma Scale values, mortality, and the presence of adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Logistic regression analysis was performed to determine variables statistically associated with mortality. RESULTS: Group II patients had a significantly higher Injury Severity Score (30.2 versus 24.5, p < 0.001), lower Glasgow Coma Scale value (12.3 versus 13.1, p = 0.05), higher mortality rate (25.9 vs 11.7%, p < 0.001), and higher incidence of ARDS (15.7 versus 7.27%, p = 0.014) than group I patients. Group II patients also had significantly more closed head injuries, open skull fractures, intraabdominal injuries requiring surgical intervention, and pelvic fractures; the rates of thoracic injury were similar. Regression analysis of variables evident on admission revealed a significant correlation between bilateral femoral fractures and death; however, other factors (shock, closed head injury, and thoracic injury) had much stronger correlations with mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with bilateral femoral fractures have a significantly higher risk of death, ARDS, and associated injuries than patients with unilateral femoral fractures. This increase in mortality is more closely related to associated injuries and physiologic parameters than to the presence of bilateral femoral fractures. The presence of bilateral femoral fractures should alert the clinician to the likelihood of associated injuries, a higher Injury Severity Score, and the potential for a more serious prognosis.

Adult respiratory distress syndrome, pneumonia, and mortality following thoracic injury and a femoral fracture treated either with intramedullary nailing with reaming or with a plate. A comparative study.

Multiply injured patients (an Injury Severity Score of 17 points or more) who were admitted to one of two level-I regional trauma centers between 1983 and 1994 because of a fracture of the femoral shaft with a thoracic injury (an Abbreviated Injury Scale score of 2 points or more) or without a thoracic injury were studied retrospectively. The patient populations and the protocols for the treatment of trauma were similar at the two centers; however, the centers differed with regard to the technique that was used for acute stabilization of the fracture of the femoral shaft. At Center I intramedullary nailing with reaming was used in 217 (95 per cent) of the 229 patients, whereas at Center II a plate was used in 206 (92 per cent) of the 224 patients. This difference was used to investigate the effect of acute femoral reaming on the occurrence of adult respiratory distress syndrome in multiply injured patients who had a chest injury. Three groups of patients were evaluated: those who had both a fracture of the femur and a thoracic injury, those who had a fracture of the femur but no thoracic injury, and those who had a thoracic injury without a fracture of the femur or the tibia. The third group was studied at each center to determine if there was a difference between the institutions with regard to the rate of adult respiratory distress syndrome. Patients who had diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, hepatic or renal failure, or an immunosuppressive condition were excluded from the study. The records were abstracted to determine the Injury Severity Score, Abbreviated Injury Scale score, and Glasgow Coma Score for each patient. Requirements for fluid resuscitation were calculated for the first twenty-four hours; these included the number of units of packed red blood cells, fresh-frozen plasma, and platelets that were transfused and the volume of crystalloid that was used. The duration of intubation, the duration of hospitalization, and the occurence of adverse outcomes (death, multiple organ failure, adult respiratory distress syndrome, pneumonia, and pulmonary embolism) were determined for each patient. The groups of patients were analyzed as a whole and then were stratified into subgroups (according to whether or not they had a thoracic injury and whether the Injury Severity Score was less than 30 points or 30 points or more) to determine if the type of fixation of the femoral fracture affected the rate of adult respiratory distress syndrome or mortality. Logistic regression models were used to analyze the data. The over-all occurrence of adult respiratory distress syndrome in the 453 patients who had a femoral fracture was only 2 per cent (ten patients). The rates of adult respiratory distress syndrome for the patients who had a thoracic injury but no femoral fracture (eight [6 per cent] of 129 patients at Center I, compared with ten [8 per cent] of 125 patients at Center II) did not differ between centers, suggesting that the institutions were comparable in their treatment of multiply injured patients. The occurrence of adult respiratory distress syndrome in the patients who had a femoral fracture without a thoracic injury did not differ substantially according to whether the fracture had been treated with a nail (118 patients) or a plate (114 patients). Likewise, the frequency of adult respiratory distress syndrome, pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, failure of multiple organs, or death for the patients who had a femoral fracture and a thoracic injury was similar regardless of whether nailing with reaming (117 patients) or a plate (104 patients) had been used. The use of intramedullary nailing with reaming for acute stabilization of fractures of the femur in multiply injured patients who have a thoracic injury without a major comorbid disease does not appear to increase the occurrence of adult respiratory distress syndrome, pulmonary embolism, failure of multiple organs, pneumonia, or death.

Flexible endoscopy for the diagnosis of esophageal trauma.

The role of flexible endoscopy in the diagnosis of esophageal trauma remains undefined. This study evaluates the use of immediate flexible fiberoptic esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) as the primary diagnostic tool for detection of esophageal injury in trauma patients. Flexible EGD was performed on 31 patients for this purpose from August 1991 through January 1994. There were 28 males and 3 females with a mean age of 24.3 years (range, 16-54 years). Twenty-four of 31 patients (77%) were intubated at the time of the examination. Mechanism of injury was penetrating in 24 patients (20 gunshot wounds, four stab wounds) and blunt (motor vehicle crash) in seven patients. Penetrating injuries were located in the neck in 5 of 24 patients, in the chest in 15 of 24 patients, and in both the neck and chest in 4 of 24 patients. Upper gastrointestinal contrast studies were performed for 3 of 31 patients (10%), computed tomography was performed for eight patients (26%), bronchoscopy was performed for 13 patients (42%), angiography was performed for 17 patients (55%), and rigid esophagoscopy and laryngoscopy were each performed for one patient (3%). Evidence of esophageal trauma during EGD was seen in 5 of 31 patients. True-positive studies occurred for four patients, false-positive results occurred for one patient, true-negative results occurred for 26 patients (as demonstrated by exploration in five and clinical follow-up in 21), and no false-negative examinations occurred. Sensitivity of flexible EGD was 100%, specificity was 96%, and accuracy was 97%. No complications occurred related to the performance of EGD. Flexible fiberoptic endoscopy seems to be a safe and effective method for both detection and exclusion of esophageal trauma.

Multiple ipsilateral dorsal metacarpophalangeal and proximal interphalangeal joint dislocations: a case report.

A 65-year-old male sustained dorsal dislocation of the long, ring, and small metacarpophalangeal joints and of the long and ring proximal interphalangeal joints. Immediate surgical intervention, including irrigation, debridement, and reduction, were performed. Early range of motion for all joints resulted in functional recovery.

Rupture of the bowel after blunt abdominal trauma: diagnosis with CT.

OBJECTIVE: The accuracy of CT in the detection of injuries of the solid viscera after blunt trauma is well established, but the value of CT in diagnosing bowel rupture resulting from blunt trauma is controversial. This study was conducted to determine the sensitivity of CT in diagnosing posttraumatic bowel rupture. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: During a 51-month period, 17 preoperative CT scans were obtained in 16 patients who subsequently had bowel ruptures verified surgically. Both preoperative (prospective) and retrospective CT findings were analyzed in these patients. Retrospective interpretation was made by consensus of two radiologists. RESULTS: Surgically confirmed bowel ruptures occurred in the duodenum (five), ileum (four), jejunum (four), colon (four), and stomach (two). CT findings considered diagnostic of bowel perforation were detected prospectively on 10 (59%) of 17 scans; these included pneumoperitoneum without prior peritoneal lavage (six), mesenteric, intramural, or retroperitoneal free air (six), or direct visualization of discontinuity of the bowel wall or extravasation of luminal contents (four). Prospective CT findings considered suggestive of bowel rupture were present on five (29%) of the 17 scans; these included intraperitoneal fluid of unknown source (three), thickened (> 4-5 mm) bowel wall (two), gross anterior pararenal fluid without a recognized source (one), and a mesenteric-bowel wall hematoma (one). On two of 17 scans, findings were seen in retrospect only; these included free intraperitoneal blood without a source (findings on a second CT scan were diagnostic) and pneumoperitoneum. CT findings diagnostic or suggestive of bowel injury were detected prospectively on 15 (88%) of 17 scans and were noted in all retrospectively. CONCLUSION: CT is sensitive for the diagnosis of bowel rupture resulting from blunt trauma, but careful inspection and technique are required to detect often subtle findings.

Percutaneous tracheostomy after trauma and critical illness.

A method of percutaneous tracheostomy (PT) using a tracheostome, which permits insertion of a full-sized cuffed tracheostomy tube, was evaluated in 61 critically ill or injured patients (89% had trauma). Of the 54 trauma patients, 65% had brain injuries, 14% had injuries to the cervical spinal cord, 33% had face or jaw injuries, and 15% had lung injuries. The indications for PT were coma (46%), acute airway obstruction (5%), face or jaw injury (20%), pneumonitis (39%), adult respiratory distress syndrome (12%), and sepsis (21%). Tracheostomy was done in 51% of all cases specifically for managing pulmonary secretions, in 37% for prolonged intubation, and in 25% for neurologic lesions. The tracheostomy was done as an emergency in 5%, as urgent in 28%, and electively in 77%. Percutaneous tracheostomy was successful in 90% of the cases, and in 8% it was converted to a surgical tracheostomy after an initial percutaneous attempt. In 46% it was performed at the bedside, in 46% in the operating room, and in 7% in the emergency suite. A full-sized tracheostomy tube (#6 to #8) was used in all cases and was considered optimal or larger than needed in 87% of cases. With three exceptions the complications of PT were minor, but 30% of the patients died of their primary disease. In one case death occurred because of bronchospasm and cardiac arrest during the PT, but appeared to be independent of the type of tracheostomy. Healing after in-hospital removal (37%) was excellent in 95% of cases and 97% of physicians indicated that they would use the device again.

Blunt trauma during pregnancy: factors affecting fetal outcome.

During a 9 1/2-year period, 76 pregnant women who sustained blunt trauma were admitted to a level-I trauma center. Fetal outcome was ascertained in 59 patients (78%). Successful delivery was noted in 35 patients (46%). Eight patients (11%) elected to undergo abortion for nonmedical reasons. Sixteen patients (21%) sustained fetal loss, and 17 patients (22%) were lost to follow-up. The 51 patients who either delivered successfully or experienced a fetal loss were studied to determine the factors that affected fetal outcome. Variables analyzed included gestational age and maternal age, Glasgow Coma Scale score, serum bicarbonate level, pH, PCO2, PO2, blood pressure, heart rate, Injury Severity Score, and performance of surgery or diagnostic peritoneal lavage. Logistic regression analysis revealed that ISS (p less than 0.01) and admission serum bicarbonate level (p less than 0.02) have the most significant correlation with fetal outcome. No other variable exhibited a statistically significant influence on fetal outcome. This information documents that fetal demise is related to severity of maternal injury as characterized by ISS. A low serum bicarbonate level corresponds to maternal hypoperfusion and hypoxia, which may be otherwise unrecognized because of the normal physiologic changes occurring during pregnancy. Based on these findings, routine serum bicarbonate determination in all pregnant patients being evaluated for trauma is advocated. Performance of DPL and surgery do not have a significant association with fetal loss and therefore should not be withheld when indicated in a pregnant patient.

Effect of associated injuries and blood volume replacement on death, rehabilitation needs, and disability in blunt traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of associated injuries on death, disability, rehabilitation needs, and cost in patients with blunt traumatic brain injury. DESIGN: A retrospective case series analysis of 1,709 patients with blunt traumatic brain injury, or 37.2% of 4,590 consecutive blunt trauma patients, was combined with a prospective study of a subset of 202 of the 1,709 brain-injured patients obtained during the same time period with regard to need for rehabilitation services, residual disability, and costs at 1 yr after discharge from the acute trauma center. SETTING: A level I regional trauma center that is also the statewide neurotrauma and multiple trauma unit serving a population of more than 3 million persons. RESULTS: Contingency table analysis showed the Glasgow Coma Scale to be highly predictive (p less than .0001) of likelihood of mortality, need for postacute inpatient rehabilitation, or discharge home. Of the blunt traumatic brain injury patients, 40.4% (691) had an isolated brain injury and 59.6% (1,018) had brain plus at least one other systemic injury. The mortality rate of the isolated brain injury group was 11.1% compared with 21.8% in all brain plus systemic injury groups (p less than .0001). Spine, lung, visceral, pelvis, or extremity injuries in blunt traumatic brain injury all increased mortality rate to greater than 25% (all simultaneously significant, p less than .0001). Analysis of the interaction of brain injury (quantified by Glasgow Coma Scale) with blood replacement in the initial 24 hrs showed that at any Glasgow Coma Scale range, percent mortality increased as the volume of blood increased. Hypovolemic shock increased the mortality rate from 12.8% to 62.1% (p less than .0001). The need for postacute inpatient rehabilitation in survivors also increased as blood replacement increased, and shock increased the percent of patients requiring post-acute inpatient rehabilitation from 39.7% to 60.3%. In 202 consecutive surviving brain trauma patients followed for 1 yr, isolated brain-injured patients with moderate brain injuries had a 4% need for posttrauma, postacute inpatient rehabilitation with a total cost per case of $12,489 compared with the brain plus extremity injury group, who had a 23% postacute inpatient rehabilitation rate and a total cost per case of $36,177 at 1 yr. With severe brain injury, isolated brain injury increased postacute inpatient rehabilitation to 29% and 1-yr cost to $59,274, but with the brain plus extremity injury group, postacute inpatient rehabilitation increased to 49% and cost to $84,950. CONCLUSIONS: In blunt traumatic brain injury, the addition of major visceral or extremity injuries, with need for blood replacement or shock, increases the risk of death, the need for rehabilitation, and the costs of disability.

Trauma during pregnancy. A review of 79 cases.

Few studies provide data on pregnant trauma patients that can be used to direct management decisions. Therefore, this retrospective study of 79 pregnant patients who were injured and admitted to a trauma center during a 9-year period was conducted to obtain such information. Maternal mortality for these pregnant patients was 10%, which was not different from that for nonpregnant females. Overall, rate of fetal loss was 34%. Rates of fetal loss were not different in patients with and without evidence of shock and/or hypoxia or in restrained and unrestrained automobile occupants. Diagnostic peritoneal lavage proved to be 95% accurate and safe. Based on these findings, we concluded the following: pregnancy does not increase maternal mortality from trauma. Blood pressure, pulse rate, and PO2 are unreliable indicators of adequate maternal resuscitation and fetal well-being. Assumption of maternal and fetal stability based solely on these usually standard criteria is unwise. Use of seat belts during pregnancy is advisable in the absence of evidence that restraints increase the rate of fetal loss.

Diaphragmatic rupture due to blunt trauma: sensitivity of plain chest radiographs.

Preoperative diagnosis of diaphragmatic rupture caused by blunt injury is often difficult because of serious concurrent injuries, a lack of specific clinical signs, and simultaneous lung disease that may mask or mimic the diagnosis radiologically. Previous reports have suggested that a preoperative diagnosis is established on the basis of chest radiographs in only one third of patients. In order to assess the value of chest radiographs and other imaging techniques in diagnosing traumatic rupture of the diaphragm, we retrospectively reviewed all preoperative diagnostic imaging performed in 50 patients with surgically proved hemidiaphragmatic rupture due to blunt trauma. Chest radiographs were diagnostic in 20 (46%) of 44 patients with left-sided rupture and were considered suspicious enough to warrant further diagnostic studies in an additional eight patients (18%). Five patients with initially normal findings on chest radiographs had diagnostic findings on delayed chest radiographs. Chest radiographs were strongly suggestive in only one (17%) of six patients with right-sided hemidiaphragmatic rupture. CT was diagnostic for diaphragmatic rupture in only one (14%) of seven instances in which it was performed. MR was diagnostic in both patients in whom it was performed. Our experience indicates that chest radiographs obtained at admission and repeated soon after are more valuable in suggesting the diagnosis of traumatic rupture of the diaphragm than previously reported, particularly in the more frequent, left-sided injuries. This increased sensitivity may be due to a greater level of suspicion maintained in a trauma referral center in which this injury is not uncommon.

Evaluation of blunt abdominal trauma occurring during pregnancy.

Evaluation of abdominal trauma in pregnant patients presents a number of dilemmas. Few series compare the various modalities available in this situation. The present review characterizes various techniques and their results. The charts of all patients with a secondary diagnosis of pregnancy admitted to a Level I trauma center over a 7 1/2-year period were reviewed. Forty were considered to have sustained possible blunt abdominal trauma: 30 were occupants in motor vehicle collisions, five were pedestrians, four sustained falls, and one was riding a motorcycle. Immediate laparotomy for emergency caesarean section or other indications was performed in three cases (7%). In 13 cases (32%) evaluation was accomplished by diagnostic peritoneal lavage (DPL). Three patients (7%) underwent computerized tomography of the abdomen. The remaining 22 patients (55%) were observed with serial physical exams, and hematocrits. The group that was observed had a mean ISS of 5.9. The mean Glasgow Coma Score (GCS) was 14.9. No patients had to undergo exploratory laparotomy for abdominal injury during hospitalization. In the 13 patients undergoing DPL, the mean ISS was 34.6, and the mean GCS was 10.6. Overall accuracy was 92% with no major complications. Pregnant patients sustaining minor injuries and blunt abdominal trauma may be safely observed. Those with major injuries, shock, altered mental status, or neurologic deficit require further studies to rule out intra-abdominal injury. Diagnostic peritoneal lavage proved to be safe and accurate in these patients. Diagnostic peritoneal lavage proved to be safe and accurate in these patients. CT scan and ultrasonography are other modalities which merit further assessment as a primary diagnostic technique in abdominal trauma occurring during pregnancy.

Pelvic fracture in multiple trauma: classification by mechanism is key to pattern of organ injury, resuscitative requirements, and outcome.

Three hundred forty-three multiple trauma patients with major pelvic ring disruption were studied and subdivided into four major groups by mechanism of injury: antero-posterior compression (APC), lateral compression (LC), vertical shear (VS), and combined mechanical injury (CMI). Acetabular fractures which did not disrupt the pelvic ring were excluded. The mode of injury was: MVA, 57.4%; motorcycle, 9.3%; fall, 9.3%; pedestrian, 17.8%; crush, 3.8%. The LC and APC groups were divided into Grades 1-3 of increasing severity. The pattern of organ injury: including brain, lung, liver, spleen, bowel, bladder, pelvic vascular injury (PVASI), retroperitoneal hematoma (RPH) and complications: circulatory shock, sepsis, ARDS, abnormal physiology, and 24-hr total fluid volume administration were all evaluated as a function of mortality (M). As LC grade increased from 1 to 3 there was increased % incidence of PVASI, RPH, shock, and 24-hr volume needs. However, the large incidence of brain, lung, and upper abdominal visceral injuries as causes of death in Grade 1 and 2 fell in LC3, with limitation of the LC3 injury pattern to the pelvis. As APC grade increased from 1 to 3 there was increased % injury to spleen, liver, bowel, PVASI with RPH, shock, sepsis, and ARDS, and large increases in volume needs, with important incidence of brain and lung injuries in all grades. Organ injury patterns and % M associated with vertical shear were similar to those with severe grades of APC, but CMI had an associated organ injury pattern similar to lower grades of APC and LC fractures. The pattern of injury in APC3 was correlated with the greatest 24-hour fluid requirements and with a rise in mortality as the APC grade rose. However, there were major differences in the causes of death in LC vs. APC injuries, with brain injury compounded by shock being significant contributors in LC. In contrast, in APC there were significant influences of shock, sepsis, and ARDS related to the massive torso forces delivered in APC, with large volume losses from visceral organs and pelvis of greater influence in APC, but brain injury was not a significant cause of death. These data indicate that the mechanical force type and severity of the pelvic fracture are the keys to the expected organ injury pattern, resuscitation needs, and mortality.

Blunt hepatic trauma in adults: CT-based classification and correlation with prognosis and treatment.

To further define the computed tomographic (CT) criteria on which to guide the nonsurgical treatment of adult patients with blunt hepatic injury, the authors retrospectively reviewed abdominal CT scans obtained before surgery during a 35-month period. Blunt hepatic injury was diagnosed in 187 patients, and review revealed 37 patients in whom the liver was the site of sole or principal intraabdominal injury detected with the help of CT before surgery. A CT-based hepatic injury classification system partly derived from similar systems established with surgical assessment was devised to grade the severity of hepatic injury. CT-based injury scores ranging from grade 1 to 5 were compared with the clinical outcome in patients treated surgically and nonsurgically. Thirty-one patients (83.7%) were successfully treated without surgery, and four patients (10.8%) had findings at celiotomy that did not require further surgery. No patient who was initially treated without surgery required delayed celiotomy due to hepatic injury. The results indicate that even major hepatic injury up to and including grade 4 severity assessed with preoperative CT can usually be managed without surgery in hemodynamically stable patients.

Blunt splenic trauma in adults: CT-based classification and correlation with prognosis and treatment.

Nonsurgical management of blunt splenic injury in children is a well-established method to salvage splenic function; however, nonsurgical management of adult blunt splenic trauma remains controversial. To assess the value of preoperative abdominal CT in predicting the outcome of blunt splenic injury in adults, a CT-based injury-severity score consisting of four grades was devised and applied in 39 adult patients with blunt splenic injury as the sole or predominant intraperitoneal injury detected with preoperative CT. While patients with high grades of splenic injury generally required early surgery, eight (35%) of 23 patients with initial grade 3 or 4 injury were treated successfully without surgery, and four (29%) of 15 patients with grade 1 or 2 injury initially treated nonsurgically required delayed celiotomy (n = 3) or emergency rehospitalization. Results show that while CT remains an accurate method of identifying and quantifying initial splenic injury, as well as documenting progression or healing of critical injury, CT cannot reliably help predict the outcome of blunt splenic injury in adults. Treatment choices should therefore be based on the hemodynamic status of the patient and results of serial laboratory and bedside assessments.