A reversible water-based electrostatic adhesive.

Commercial adhesives typically fall into two categories: structural or pressure sensitive. Structural glues rely on covalent bonds formed during curing and provide high tensile strength whilst pressure-sensitive adhesives use physical bonding to provide weaker adhesion, but with considerable convenience for the user. Here, a new class of adhesive is presented that is also reversible, with a bond strength intermediate between those of pressure-sensitive and structural adhesives. Complementary water-based formulations incorporating oppositely charged polyelectrolytes form electrostatic bonds that may be reversed through immersion in a low or high pH aqueous environment. This electrostatic adhesive has the advantageous property that it exhibits good adhesion to low-energy surfaces such as polypropylene. Furthermore, it is produced by the emulsion copolymerization of commodity materials, styrene and butyl acrylate, which makes it inexpensive and opens the possibility of industrial production. Bio-based materials have been also integrated into the formulations to further increase sustainability. Moreover, unlike other water-based glues, adhesion does not significantly degrade in humid environments. Because such electrostatic adhesives do not require mechanical detachment, they are appropriate for the large-scale recycling of, e.g., bottle labels or food packaging. The adhesive is also suitable for dismantling components in areas as varied as automotive parts and electronics.

Adhesive Interfaces toward a Zero-Waste Industry.

This Feature Article evaluates ongoing efforts to adapt adhesives toward the goal of zero-waste living and suggests the most promising future directions. Adhesives are not always considered in zero-waste manufacturing because they represent only a small fraction of a product and offer no additional functionality. However, their presence restricts the reintegration of constituent parts into a circular economy, so a new generation of adhesives is required. Furthermore, their production often leads to harmful pollutants. Here, two main approaches toward addressing these problems are considered: first, the use of natural materials that replace petroleum-based polymers from which conventional adhesives are made and second, the production of dismantlable adhesives capable of debonding on demand with the application of an external stimulus. These approaches, either individually or combined, offer a new paradigm in zero-waste industrial production and consumer applications.

Weak polyelectrolyte brushes.

I review experimental developments in the growth and application of surface-grafted weak polyelectrolytes (brushes), concentrating on their surface, tribological, and adhesive and bioadhesive properties, and their role as actuators.

The Role of Extracellular DNA in Microbial Attachment to Oxidized Silicon Surfaces in the Presence of Ca2+ and Na.

Attachment assays of a Pseudomonas isolate to fused silica slides showed that treatment with DNaseI significantly inhibited cellular adsorption, which was restored upon DNA treatment. These assays confirmed the important role of extracellular DNA (eDNA) adsorption to a surface. To investigate the eDNA adsorption mechanism, single-molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) was used to measure the adsorption of eDNA to silicon surfaces in the presence of different concentrations of sodium and calcium ions. SMFS reveals that the work of adhesion required to remove calcium-bound eDNA from the silicon oxide surface is substantially greater than that for sodium. Molecular dynamics simulations were also performed, and here, it was shown that the energy gain in eDNA adsorption to a silicon oxide surface in the presence of calcium ions is small and much less than that in the presence of sodium. The simulations show that the length scales involved in eDNA adsorption are less in the presence of sodium ions than those in the presence of calcium. In the presence of calcium, eDNA is pushed above the surface cations, whereas in the presence of sodium ions, short-range interactions with the surface dominate. Moreover, SMFS data show that increasing [Ca2+] from 1 to 10 mM increases the adsorption of the cations to the silicon oxide surface and consequently enhances the Stern layer, which in turn increases the length scale associated with eDNA adsorption.

2D reflectometry for the investigation of polymer interfaces: off-specular neutron scattering.

Specular and off-specular neutron reflectometry have been used in a combined approach to study thin polymer films. Our goal in this work is to illustrate the power of the off-specular scattering technique to probe the properties of the buried interface of immiscible polymer bilayers of deuterated polystyrene and protonated poly(methyl methacrylate) (h-PMMA). The diffuse scattering stemming from these systems is discussed in relation to thermal fluctuations at the polymer/polymer interface, providing a means to extract in-plane correlation lengths from buried interfaces. In addition the onset of hole formation in the top layer is evidenced by the diffuse scattering, not easily detectable by specular reflection alone.

Lateral diffusion of single poly(ethylene oxide) chains on the surfaces of glassy and molten polymer films.

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy was used to show that the temperature-dependent diffusion coefficient of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) adsorbed on polystyrene and different poly(alkyl methacrylate) (PAMA) films in aqueous solution exhibited a maximum close to (but below) the surface glass transition temperature, Tgs, of the film. This elevated diffusion was observed over a small range of temperatures below Tgs for these surfaces, and at other temperatures, the diffusion was similar to that on silicon, although the diffusion coefficient for PEO on polystyrene at temperatures above Tgs did not completely decrease to that on silicon, in contrast to the PAMA surfaces. It is concluded that the enhanced surface mobility of the films near the surface glass transition temperature induces conformational changes in the adsorbed PEO. The origin of this narrow and dramatic increase in diffusion coefficient is not clear, but it is proposed that it is caused by a coupling of a dominant capillary mode in the liquid surface layer with the polymer. Friction force microscopy experiments also demonstrate an unexpected increase in friction at the same temperature as the increase in diffusion coefficient.

Optical Gain in Semiconducting Polymer Nano and Mesoparticles.

The presence of excited-states and charge-separated species was identified through UV and visible laser pump and visible/near-infrared probe femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy in spin coated films of poly[N-9″-heptadecanyl-2,7-carbazole-alt-5,5-(4,7-di-2-thienyl-2',1',3'-benzothiadiazole)] (PCDTBT) nanoparticles and mesoparticles. Optical gain in the mesoparticle films is observed after excitation at both 400 and 610 nm. In the mesoparticle film, charge generation after UV excitation appears after around 50 ps, but little is observed after visible pump excitation. In the nanoparticle film, as for a uniform film of the pure polymer, charge formation was efficiently induced by UV excitation pump, while excitation of the low energetic absorption states (at 610 nm) induces in the nanoparticle film a large optical gain region reducing the charge formation efficiency. It is proposed that the different intermolecular interactions and molecular order within the nanoparticles and mesoparticles are responsible for their markedly different photophysical behavior. These results therefore demonstrate the possibility of a hitherto unexplored route to stimulated emission in a conjugated polymer that has relatively undemanding film preparation requirements.

Adhesion of Grafted-to Polyelectrolyte Brushes Functionalized with Calix[4]resorcinarene and Deposited as a Monolayer.

Polyelectrolyte adhesives, either poly[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate] or poly(methacrylic acid), functionalized with a surface-active calix[4]resorcinarene were grafted onto silicon wafers. Adhesion studies on these grafted-to brushes using polyelectrolyte hydrogels of opposite charge showed that it is the calix[4]resorcinarene, rather than adsorption of polyelectrolyte monomers, that adheres the brush to the silicon substrate. The adhesion measured was similar to that measured using polymers grafted from the surface, and was stronger than a control layer of poly(vinyl acetate) under the same test conditions. The limiting factor was determined to be adhesive failure at the hydrogel-brush interface, rather than the brush-silicon interface. Therefore, the adhesion has not been adversely affected by changing from a grafted-from to a grafted-to brush, demonstrating the possibility of a one-pot approach to creating switchable adhesives.

Distinct Binding Interactions of α5ß1-Integrin and Proteoglycans with Fibronectin.

Dynamic single-molecule force spectroscopy was performed to monitor the unbinding of fibronectin with the proteoglycans syndecan-4 (SDC4) and decorin and to compare this with the unbinding characteristics of α5ß1-integrin. A single energy barrier was sufficient to describe the unbinding of both SDC4 and decorin from fibronectin, whereas two barriers were observed for the dissociation of α5ß1-integrin from fibronectin. The outer (high-affinity) barriers in the interactions of fibronectin with α5ß1-integrin and SDC4 are characterized by larger barrier heights and widths and slower dissociation rates than those of the inner (low-affinity) barriers in the interactions of fibronectin with α5ß1-integrin and decorin. These results indicate that SDC4 and (ultimately) α5ß1-integrin have the ability to withstand deformation in their interactions with fibronectin, whereas the decorin-fibronectin interaction is considerably more brittle.

Size-Dependent Photophysical Behavior of Low Bandgap Semiconducting Polymer Particles.

The photophysics of water and propan-1-ol suspensions of poly [N-9"-heptadecanyl-2,7-carbazole-alt-5,5-(4,7-di-2-thienyl-2',1',3'- benzothiadiazole)] (PCDTBT) nanoparticles and mesoparticles has been studied by ultrafast spectroscopy. High molar mass polymer (HMM > 20 kg/mol) forms nanoparticles with around 50 nm diameter via mini-emulsion post-polymerization, while low molar mass (LMM < 5 kg/mol) polymer prepared by dispersion polymerization results in particles with a diameter of almost one order of magnitude larger (450 ± 50 nm). In this study, the presence of excited-states and charge separated species was identified through UV pump and visible/near-infrared probe femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy. A different behavior for the HMM nanoparticles has been identified compared to the LMM mesoparticles. The nanoparticles exhibit typical features of an energetically disordered conjugated polymer with a broad density of states, allowing for delayed spectral relaxation of excited states, while the mesoparticles show a J-aggregate-like behavior where interchain interactions are less efficient. Stimulated emission in the red-near infrared region has been found in the mesoparticles which indicates that they present a more energetically ordered system.

Extracellular DNA Provides Structural Integrity to a Micrococcus luteus Biofilm.

Force spectroscopy was used to show that extracellular DNA (eDNA) has a pre-eminent structural role in a biofilm. The adhesive behavior of extracellular polymeric substances to poly(ethylene terephthalate), a model hydrophobic surface, was measured in response to their degradation by hydrolytic enzymes known for their biofilm dispersion potential: DNaseI, protease, cellulase, and mannanase. Only treatment with DNaseI significantly decreased the adhesive force of the model bacterium Micrococcus luteus with the surface, and furthermore this treatment almost completely eliminated any components of the biofilm maintaining the adhesion, establishing a key structural role for eDNA.

Slow polymer diffusion on brush-patterned surfaces in aqueous solution.

A model system for the investigation of diffusional transport in compartmentalized nanosystems is described. Arrays of "corrals" enclosed within poly[oligo(ethylene glycol)methyl ether methacrylate] (POEGMA) "walls" were fabricated using double-exposure interferometric lithography to deprotect aminosilane films protected by a nitrophenyl group. In exposed regions, removal of the nitrophenyl group enabled attachment of an initiator for the atom-transfer radical polymerization of end-grafted POEGMA (brushes). Diffusion coefficients for poly(ethylene glycol) in these corrals were obtained by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Two modes of surface diffusion were observed: one which is similar to diffusion on the unpatterned surface and a very slow mode of surface diffusion that becomes increasingly important as confinement increases. Diffusion within the POEGMA brushes does not significantly contribute to the results.

Blob Size Controls Diffusion of Free Polymer in a Chemically Identical Brush in Semidilute Solution.

The diffusion of rhodamine-labeled poly(ethylene glycol) (r-PEG) within surface-grafted poly(ethylene glycol) (s-PEG) layers in aqueous solution at 18 °C was measured by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. The diffusion coefficient of r-PEG within s-PEG was controlled by the grafting density, σ, and scaled as σ-1.42±0.09. It is proposed that a characteristic blob size associated with the grafted (brush) layer defines the region through which the r-PEG diffusion occurs. The diffusion coefficients for r-PEG in semidilute solution were found to be similar to those in the brushes.

Temperature-dependent structure and dynamics of highly-branched poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) in aqueous solution.

Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) and neutron spin-echo (NSE) have been used to investigate the temperature-dependent solution behaviour of highly-branched poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (HB-PNIPAM). SANS experiments have shown that water is a good solvent for both HB-PNIPAM and a linear PNIPAM control at low temperatures where the small angle scattering is described by a single correlation length model. Increasing the temperature leads to a gradual collapse of HB-PNIPAM until above the lower critical solution temperature (LCST), at which point aggregation occurs, forming disperse spherical particles of up to 60 nm in diameter, independent of the degree of branching. However, SANS from linear PNIPAM above the LCST is described by a model that combines particulate structure and a contribution from solvated chains. NSE was used to study the internal and translational solution dynamics of HB-PNIPAM chains below the LCST. Internal HB-PNIPAM dynamics is described well by the Rouse model for non-entangled chains.

Salt Dependence of the Tribological Properties of a Surface-Grafted Weak Polycation in Aqueous Solution.

The nanoscopic adhesive and frictional behaviour of end-grafted poly[2-(dimethyl amino)ethyl methacrylate] (PDMAEMA) films (brushes) in contact with gold- or PDMAEMA-coated atomic force microscope tips in potassium halide solutions with different concentrations up to 300 mM is a strong function of salt concentration. The conformation of the polymers in the brush layer is sensitive to salt concentration, which leads to large changes in adhesive forces and the contact mechanics at the tip-sample contact, with swollen brushes (which occur at low salt concentrations) yielding large areas of contact and friction-load plots that fit JKR behaviour, while collapsed brushes (which occur at high salt concentrations) yield sliding dominated by ploughing, with conformations in between fitting DMT mechanics. The relative effect of the different anions follows the Hofmeister series, with I- collapsing the brushes more than Br- and Cl- for the same salt concentration.

Nanotribological Investigation of Polymer Brushes with Lithographically Defined and Systematically Varying Grafting Densities.

Following controlled photodeprotection of a 2-nitrophenylpropyloxycarbonyl-protected (aminopropyl)triethoxysilane (NPPOC-APTES) film and subsequent derivatization with a bromoester-based initiator, poly(2-(methacryloyloxy)ethylphosphorylcholine) (PMPC) brushes with various grafting densities were grown from planar silicon substrates using atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The grafting density correlated closely with the extent of deprotection of the NPPOC-APTES. The coefficient of friction for such PMPC brushes was measured by friction force microscopy in water and found to be inversely proportional to the grafting density due to the osmotic pressure that resists deformation. Deprotection of NPPOC-APTES via near-field photolithography using a range of writing rates enabled the fabrication of neighboring nanoscopic polymeric structures with dimensions ranging from 100 to 1000 nm. Slow writing rates enable complete deprotection to occur; hence, polymer brushes are formed with comparable thicknesses to macroscopic brushes grown under the same conditions. However, the extent of deprotection is reduced at higher writing rates, resulting in the concomitant reduction of the brush thickness. The coefficient of friction for such polymer brushes varied smoothly with brush height, with lower coefficients being obtained at slower writing rate (increasing initiator density) because the solvated brush layer confers greater lubricity. However, when ultrasharp probes were used for nanotribological measurements, the coefficient of friction increased with brush thickness. Under such conditions, the radius of curvature of the tip is comparable to the mean spacing between brush chains, allowing the probe to penetrate the brush layer leading to a relatively large contact area.

The Substrate is a pH-Controlled Second Gate of Electrolyte-Gated Organic Field-Effect Transistor.

Electrolyte-gated organic field-effect transistors (EGOFETs), based on ultrathin pentacene films on quartz, were operated with electrolyte solutions whose pH was systematically changed. Transistor parameters exhibit nonmonotonic variation versus pH, which cannot be accounted for by capacitive coupling through the Debye-Helmholtz layer. The data were fitted with an analytical model of the accumulated charge in the EGOFET, where Langmuir adsorption was introduced to describe the pH-dependent charge buildup at the quartz surface. The model provides an excellent fit to the threshold voltage and transfer characteristics as a function of the pH, which demonstrates that quartz acts as a second gate controlled by pH and is mostly effective from neutral to alkaline pH. The effective capacitance of the device is always greater than the capacitance of the electrolyte, thus highlighting the role of the substrate as an important active element for amplification of the transistor response.

Effect of Salt on Phosphorylcholine-based Zwitterionic Polymer Brushes.

A quantitative investigation of the responses of surface-grown biocompatible brushes of poly(2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl phosphorylcholine) (PMPC) to different types of salt has been carried out using ellipsometry, quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) measurements, and friction force microscopy. Both cations and anions of varying valency over a wide range of concentrations were examined. Ellipsometry shows that the height of the brushes is largely independent of the ionic strength, confirming that the degree of swelling of the polymer is independent of the ionic character of the medium. In contrast, QCM measurements reveal significant changes in mass and dissipation to the PMPC brush layer, suggesting that ions bind to phosphorylcholine (PC) groups in PMPC molecules, which results in changes in the stiffness of the brush layer, and the binding affinity varies with salt type. Nanotribological measurements made using friction force microscopy show that the coefficient of friction decreases with increasing ionic strength for a variety of salts, supporting the conclusion drawn from QCM measurements. It is proposed that the binding of ions to the PMPC molecules does not change their hydration state, and hence the height of the surface-grown polymeric brushes. However, the balance of the intra- and intermolecular interactions is strongly dependent upon the ionic character of the medium between the hydrated chains, modulating the interactions between the zwitterionic PC pendant groups and, consequently, the stiffness of the PMPC molecules in the brush layer.

Double-network hydrogels improve pH-switchable adhesion.

For environmentally-switchable adhesive systems to be reused repeatedly, the adhesive strength must not deteriorate after each adhesion cycle. An important criterion to achieve this goal is that the integrity of the interface must be retained after each adhesion cycle. Furthermore, in order to have practical benefits, reversing the adhesion must be a relatively rapid process. Here, a double-network hydrogel of poly(methacrylic acid) and poly[oligo(ethylene glycol)methyl ether methacrylate] is shown to undergo adhesive failure during pH-switchable adhesion with a grafted (brush) layer of polycationic poly[2-(diethyl amino)ethyl methacrylate], and can be reused at least seven times. The surfaces are attached at pH 6 and detached at pH 1. A single-network hydrogel of poly(methacrylic acid), also exhibits pH-switchable adhesion with poly[2-(diethyl amino)ethyl methacrylate] but cohesive failure leads to an accumulation of the hydrogel on the brush surface and the hydrogel can only be reused at different parts of that surface. Even without an environmental stimulus (i.e. attaching and detaching at pH 6), the double-network hydrogel can be used up to three times at the same point on the brush surface. The single-network hydrogel cannot be reused under such circumstances. Finally, the time taken for the reuse of the double-network hydrogel is relatively rapid, taking no more than an hour to reverse the adhesion.

The pH-responsive behaviour of poly(acrylic acid) in aqueous solution is dependent on molar mass.

Fluorescence spectroscopy on a series of aqueous solutions of poly(acrylic acid) containing a luminescent label showed that polymers with molar mass, Mn < 16.5 kDa did not exhibit a pH responsive conformational change, which is typical of higher molar mass poly(acrylic acid). Below this molar mass, polymers remained in an extended conformation, regardless of pH. Above this molar mass, a pH-dependent conformational change was observed. Diffusion-ordered nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy confirmed that low molar mass polymers did not undergo a conformational transition, although large molar mass polymers did exhibit pH-dependent diffusion.