Qualitative and Quantitative Study of the Changes in the Ultrastructure of Mammalian Adrenal Cortex Caused by the Venezuelan Tigra Mariposa (Bothrops venezuelensis) Snake Venom.

The damage of the adrenal gland by snake venoms needs to be clarified. Lethality (LD50) of Bothrops venezuelensis (Bv) venom was established by intraperitoneally mice injections. Preparation of specimens for transmission electron microscopy samples from cortex adrenal gland biopsies at 3, 6, and 24 h was processed. The quantitative description by the principal component analysis (PCA) of the adrenal gland was as follows: thickening of the capillary endothelium, area of the capillary lumen, cell nucleus area, enlargement of the perinuclear space, number of mitochondria, area of the mitochondria, number of mitochondrial cristae, number of cristae per mitochondrial unit, and tubular diameter of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). Sections of the adrenal cortex, after 3 h postinjection with Bv venom showed in the cortical cells: mitochondria with tubular cristae and slightly swollen SER cisternae, nucleus with variable heterochromatin content, irregular edges, and swollen nuclear envelope. After 6 h, cells with swollen nucleus envelope, electron dense lipids and mitochondria with loss of their cristae were observed. Myelin figures, close to the microvilli of the cortical cell, multivesicular bodies, swollen profiles of the SER, and electron dense lipid drops were noticed. After 24 h, thickening of the endothelial wall, fenestrae and projections into the capillary lumen, loss of the mitochondrial cristae, destruction of the capillary and the plasma membrane of the cortical cell, multivesicular body, SER loss, and an enlargement of the perinuclear space were detected. In the quantitative PCA, there were significant changes after the venom treatments.

Biological activities of a new crotamine-like peptide from Crotalus oreganus helleri on C2C12 and CHO cell lines, and ultrastructural changes on motor endplate and striated muscle.

Crotamine and crotamine-like peptides are non-enzymatic polypeptides, belonging to the family of myotoxins, which are found in high concentration in the venom of the Crotalus genus. Helleramine was isolated and purified from the venom of the Southern Pacific rattlesnake, Crotalus oreganus helleri. This peptide had a similar, but unique, identity to crotamine and crotamine-like proteins isolated from other rattlesnakes species. The variability of crotamine-like protein amino acid sequences may allow different toxic effects on biological targets or optimize the action against the same target of different prey. Helleramine was capable of increasing intracellular Ca2+ in Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cell line. It inhibited cell migration as well as cell viability (IC50 = 11.44 µM) of C2C12, immortalized skeletal myoblasts, in a concentration dependent manner, and promoted early apoptosis and cell death under our experimental conditions. Skeletal muscle harvested from mice 24 h after helleramine injection showed contracted myofibrils and profound vacuolization that enlarged the subsarcolemmal space, along with loss of plasmatic and basal membrane integrity. The effects of helleramine provide further insights and evidence of myotoxic activities of crotamine-like peptides and their possible role in crotalid envenomings.

Mutacytin-1, a New C-Type Lectin-Like Protein from the Venezuelan Cuaima (Lachesis muta muta Linnaeus, 1766) (Serpentes: Viperidae) Snake Venom Inducing Cardiotoxicity in Developing Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Embryos.

Envenomation by the Venezuelan bushmaster snake (Lachesis muta muta) (Serpentes: Viperidae) is characterized by local and cardiac alterations. This study investigates the in vivo cardiac dysfunction, tissue destruction, and cellular processes triggered by Lachesis muta muta snake crude venom and a C-type lectin (CTL)-like toxin named Mutacytin-1 (MC-1). The 28 kDa MC-1 was obtained by molecular exclusion, ion exchange, and C-18 (checking pureness) reverse-phase chromatographies. N-terminal sequencing of the first eight amino acids (NNCPQ LLM) revealed 100% identity with Mutina (CTL-like) isolated from Lachesis stenophrys, which is a Ca2+-dependent-type galactoside-binding lectin from Bothrops jararaca and CTL BpLec from Bothrops pauloensis. The cardiotoxicity in zebrafish of MC-1 was evaluated by means of specific phenotypic expressions and larvae behavior at 5, 15, 30, 40 and 60 min post-treatment. The L. muta muta venom and MC-1 also produced heart rate/rhythm alterations, circulation modifications, and the presence of thrombus and apoptotic phenomenon with pericardial damages. Acridine orange (100 µg/mL) was used to visualize apoptosis cellular process in control and treated whole embryos. The cardiotoxic alterations happened in more than 90% of all larvae under the action of L. muta muta venom and MC-1. The findings have demonstrated the potential cardiotoxicity by L. muta muta venom, suggesting the possibility of cardiovascular damages to patients after bushmaster envenoming.

Intraspecies geographical variability in the South American tigra mariposa (Bothrops venezuelensis Sandner 1952) snake venom activities.

Bothrops venezuelensis snake venoms, from five localities in the North-Central Venezuelan regions, showed biochemical and haemostatic differences. In this study, bioactivities of B. venezuelensis venoms from different regions (Aragua state; Waraira Repano (Capital District); Baruta, La Boyera and Lagunetica (Miranda state)) were compared using both natural and synthetic substrates. The protein contents of these venoms were Lagunetica 89%, La Boyera 79%, Baruta 71%, Waraira Repano 68% and Aragua 64%. Toxic activities effects were: Intraperitoneal LD50s: Aragua-14 mg/kg; Waraira Repano-6.4 mg/kg; Baruta: 8.3 mg/kg; La Boyera-4.4 mg/kg; Lagunetica-16.2 mg/kg. The MHD results: Aragua-21.4 µg/mouse; Waraira Repano-2.5 µg/mouse; Baruta-1.2 µg/mouse; La Boyera-1.4 µg/mouse and Lagunetica-12 µg/mouse. The hide powder azure results: Aragua-1.24 U/mg; La Boyera-2.26 U/mg; Baruta-2.83 U/mg; Lagunetica-3.28 U/mg and Waraira Repano-5.77 U/mg. Esterase specific activity on BAEE results: Waraira Repano-666.66 U/mg; La Boyera-805.5 U/mg; Baruta-900.00 U/mg; Lagunetica-922.19 U/mg and Aragua-1960.67 U/mg. Casein zymography showed digestion bands in the molecular weight above 100 and at 66.2 and 21.5 kDa. Analysis of casein degradation by SDS-PAGE showed two different degradation patterns. Fibrinolytic activity (mm2/µg) on fibrin plates results: Aragua-6.07; Lagunetica-27.6; Waraira Repano-35.7; La Boyera-44.27 and Baruta-45.63. In the fibrinogenolytic assay, the five venoms completely degraded the α chain after 1 min of incubation. None of the venoms completely degraded the ß and γ chains after 24 h incubation. The research indicated that venoms of B. venezuelensis of different geographic areas in Venezuela exhibit variances in composition and component concentrations; except the Aragua venom, all of them had high proteolytic activities.

Crotamine-like from Southern Pacific rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus helleri) Venom acts on human leukemia (K-562) cell lines and produces ultrastructural changes on mice adrenal gland.

Crotamine is a cationic, non-enzymatic, protein integrating a minor family of myotoxins, composed of 42 amino acid residues, described in Viperidae and Crotalidae snake's families that has been used in neuroscience research, drug progressing and molecular diversity reports. Crotamine-like protein (CLP) from C.o.helleri venom was isolated in fraction 5 from 7 peaks obtained by sulfopropyl waters protein pak cationic exchange column. In tricine-SDS-PAGE under non-reduced conditions this CLP showed a single band of ~8 kDa molecular weight. CLP induced toxicity of K-562 cells with a CC50 of 11.09 µM. In mice adrenal gland after 24 h of CLP injection, cortical cells exhibited swollen mitochondria with scarce tubular cristae, some elements of smooth and rough endoplasmic reticula, widened nuclear envelope, slightly osmiophilic lipid droplets, and autophagic vacuoles. In some areas cortical cells plasma membrane and endothelial walls disappeared, which indicated a necrosis process. In other areas, endothelial cell cytoplasm did not present the normal caveolae and pinocytotic vesicles. To our knowledge, this is the first report on mice adrenal gland damages, caused by the injection of CLP from rattlesnakes. Our results propose that adrenal cortex lesions may be significant in the envenoming etiopathogenesis by CLP.

Caracterización bioquímica y biológica del veneno de la serpiente Neotropical Macagua (Bothrops Colombiensis) de la región de Barlovento, estado Miranda, Venezuela / Biological and biochemical characterization of the Neotropical Macagua (Bothrops colombiensis) snake venom from Barlovento region, Miranda state, Venezuela

Introducción: el veneno de B. colombiensis no es solamente un elemento tóxico; en su composición existen múltiples componentes, que tienen un gran potencial terapéutico, principalmente en el tratamiento de patologías de la trombosis y la coagulación. Objetivos: estudiar una mezcla de venenos de Bothrops colombiensis de una ubicacion geográfica de Venezuela, a fin de hacer un barrido de sus actividades hemostáticas, que permitirá posteriormente purificar y caracterizar moléculas con actividad antitrombótica y anticoagulantes, entre otras, con potencial terapéutico. Métodos: el veneno a estudiar, es una mezcla de ellos obtenidos de serpientes provenientes de la Región de Barlovento, estado Miranda, Venezuela. Se caracterizó bioquímicamente por cromatografias de exclusión molecular, cromatografía de fase reversa C18 y por electroforesis a través de SDS­PAGE; y biológicamente por medio de actividades relacionadas con la hemostasia. Se analizaron los perfiles en relación a las actividades fibrinolítica, proteolítica sobre polvo azul y cadena ß de insulina, procoagulante, hemorrágica y letal. Resultados: la actividad hemorrágica, definida como la Dosis Hemorrágica Mínima fue de 8,7 mg/kg. La letalidad, definida como la Dosis Letal cincuenta fue 8,7 mg/kg. El veneno presentó actividad procoagulante y fibrinolítica. Las fracciones mostraron actividad fibrinolítica y proteolítica sobre polvo azul de ocultamiento y sobre la cadena ß de insulina. Conclusiones: las características biológicas de los componentes de este veneno le confieren un enorme potencial terapéutico, ya que contiene una alta actividad fibrinolítica y anticoagulante. Estos compuestos una vez purificados y caracterizados podrían explorarse como coadyuvantes en procesos trombolíticos, dado que disuelven coágulos de fibrina y degradan fibrinógeno, evitando episodios de retrombosis(AU)

Introduction: This paper is a screening of multiple toxic activities, of which some will be potentially useful for the management of coagulation pathologies. Objetives: A pool of Bothrops colombiensis venoms from a specific geographical location was studied, in order to carry out a hemostatic activities screening, allowing then to purify and characterise molecules with antithrombotic and anticoagulant activity, among others, which could have therapeutic potential. Methods: The venom was chromatographically by molecular exclusion and reverse phase C18 and SDS -PAGE characterized; its hemostatic activity was also established. Snakes were from the region of Barlovento, Miranda state, Venezuela. Profiles of fibrinolytic, proteolytic, procoagulant, hemorrhagic and lethal activities were analyzed. Hemorrhagic activity was 8.7 mg/kg. The LD50 was 8.7 mg/kg. The venom showed strongly procoagulant activity. Both, crude venom as fractions showed high fibrinolytic activity. The majority of the eluted fractions showed significant proteolytic activity in azure blue powder and on ß chain of insulin. Conclusions: The biological characteristics of the components of this venom confer enormous therapeutic potential because they contain a high fibrinolytic and anticoagulant activity. Most of these proteinases, once purified and characterized, could be explored as thrombolytic agents given that dissolves fibrin clots or prevent their formation(AU)

Biochemical and biological characterisation of lancehead (Bothrops venezuelensis Sandner 1952) snake venom from the Venezuelan Central Coastal range / Caracterización bioquímica y biológica del veneno de la serpiente "tigra mariposa" (Bothrops venezuelensis Sandner 1952) de la región central de la Cordillera de la Costa Venezolana

Se aislaron fracciones del veneno de Bothrops venezuelensis que demuestran ser un espectro abundante de proteínas con actividades variadas (coagulante, hemorrágica, fibrinolítica, proteolítica y de función plaquetaria), para el análisis de sus propiedades físico-químicas y biológicas, el veneno fue fraccionado por cromatografía de exclusión molecular, corrido en una electroforesis en gel y realizada una batería de ensayos biológicos. La DL50 del veneno de B. venezuelensis fue 6,39 mg/kg de peso corporal, fue determinada inyectando intraperitonealmente en ratones, diluciones seriadas de veneno de B. venezuelensis. Se colectaron doce fracciones a partir del veneno de B. venezuelensis mediante cromatografía de exclusión molecular. Las fracciones 1-5 y 7-9 tenían actividad hemorrágica. Todas las fracciones, con la excepción de las fracciones 3 y 6, tenían actividad fibrinolítica. Ninguna de las fracciones tuvo actividad de gelatinasa significativa, y sólo fracciones 4-6 demostraron actividad en polvo azul de ocultamiento. Con la excepción de las fracciones 1 y 4 , todas hidrolizaron la cadena β de la insulina. Cada fracción del veneno, así como el veneno crudo mostraron actividad procoagulante, cuando se probó en un analizador Sonoclot. Las fracciones 1, 3 , 5 y 9 inhibieron la función plaquetaria. En este estudio se señalan actividades biológicas de un veneno poco estudiado (B. venezuelensis) y sus fracciones. Al detectar actividades hemorrágicas, fibrinolíticas, procoagulantes, proteolíticas y de inhibición de la función plaquetaria. Este estudio preliminar abre el camino para la identificación de moléculas específicas que podrían tener potencial terapéutico en hemostasia y cáncer, que vienen siendo estudiados en nuestro grupo.

Venom fractions isolated from Bothrops venezuelensis were shown to contain a broad spectrum of proteins with varied activities. This study describes venom fractions with coagulant, haemorrhagic, fibrinolytic, proteolytic and antiplatelet activities, and analyses their physico-chemical properties and biological activities via molecular exclusion chromatography, gel electrophoresis and a bioassay battery. The LD50, determined by injecting intraperitoneally serial dilutions of B. venezuelensis venom into mice, was 6.39 mg/kg body weight. Twelve fractions were collected from B. venezuelensis venom using molecular exclusion chromatography. Of these, fractions 1-5 and 7-9 showed haemorrhagic activity, and all fractions except 3 and 6 showed fibrinolytic activity. However, none of the fractions had significant gelatinase activity, and only fractions 4-6 demonstrated activity on hide powder azure. With the exception of fractions 1 and 4, all fractions hydrolysed the insulin B-chain. In addition, all fractions as well as the crude venom showed strong procoagulant activity when tested using a Sonoclot Analyzer. Fractions 1, 3, 5 and 9 inhibited platelet function. In this study we have described the activities of the crude venom and its size-fractions from the scarcely studied B. venezuelensis. Haemorrhagic, fibrinolytic, procoagulant and proteolytic activities, and the inhibition of platelet function were detected. This preliminary study paves the way for the identification of specific molecules in B. venezuelensis venom that could have therapeutic potential for cancer and aberrant haemostasis treatment.

Coral snake antivenom produced in chickens (Gallus domesticus).

The production of anti-snake venom from large mammal's blood has been found to be low-yielding and arduous, consequently, antivenom immunoglobulins for treatment are achieved regularly as polyvalent serum. We have standardized an undemanding technique for making purified immunoglobulin IgY antivenom consisting of polyclonal antibodies against coral snake venom in the egg yolk of immunized hens. We have adapted a reported process of antibody purification from egg yolks, and achieved 90% antibody purity. The customized technique consisted of the removal of lipids from distilled water-diluted egg yolks by a freeze-thaw sequence. The specific immunoglobulins were present in the egg yolk for up to 180 days postimmunization. Therefore, by means of small venom quantities, a significant amount of immunoglobulins were found in an adequately purified state (The obtained material contained about 90% pure IgY). The antigen binding of the immunoglobulins was detected by a double immunodiffusion test. Titers of antibodies in the yolk were estimated with a serum protection assay (Median effective dose = ED50) (ED50= 477 mg/kg). Given that breeding hens is economically feasible, egg gathering is noninvasive and the purification of IgY antibodies is quick and easy, chicken immunization is an excellent alternative for the production of polyclonal antibodies. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first coral snake antivenom prepared in birds.

CORAL SNAKE ANTIVENOM PRODUCED IN CHICKENS (Gallus domesticus) / Antiveneno de serpiente coral producido en gallinas (Gallus domesticus)

The production of anti-snake venom from large mammal's blood has been found to be low-yielding and arduous, consequently, antivenom immunoglobulins for treatment are achieved regularly as polyvalent serum. We have standardized an undemanding technique for making purified immunoglobulin IgY antivenom consisting of polyclonal antibodies against coral snake venom in the egg yolk of immunized hens. We have adapted a reported process of antibody purification from egg yolks, and achieved 90% antibody purity. The customized technique consisted of the removal of lipids from distilled water-diluted egg yolks by a freeze–thaw sequence. The specific immunoglobulins were present in the egg yolk for up to 180 days postimmunization. Therefore, by means of small venom quantities, a significant amount of immunoglobulins were found in an adequately purified state (The obtained material contained about 90% pure IgY). The antigen binding of the immunoglobulins was detected by a double immunodiffusion test. Titers of antibodies in the yolk were estimated with a serum protection assay (Median effective dose = ED50) (ED50= 477 mg/kg). Given that breeding hens is economically feasible, egg gathering is noninvasive and the purification of IgY antibodies is quick and easy, chicken immunization is an excellent alternative for the production of polyclonal antibodies. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first coral snake antivenom prepared in birds.

La producción de antiveneno de serpiente usando sangre de grandes mamíferos se ha encontrado que es de bajo rendimiento y de trabajo arduo, en consecuencia, las inmunoglobulinas antiveneno para el tratamiento se obtienen generalmente, como suero polivalente. Hemos estandarizado una técnica poco exigente para la fabricación de inmunoglobulina purificada IgY, que consistió en generar anticuerpos policlonales contra el veneno de la serpiente coral en huevos de gallinas inmunizadas. La técnica consistió en la eliminación de lípidos de las yemas del huevo, diluidas en agua y en una secuencia de congelación-descongelación. Las inmunoglobulinas específicas estuvieron presentes en la yema de huevo hasta 180 días después de la inmunización. La unión del antígeno a las inmunoglobulinas se detectó mediante un ensayo de inmunodifusión doble. Los títulos de anticuerpos en la yema fueron estimados con un ensayo de protección (dosis efectiva media = ED50). Dado que las gallinas reproductoras son económicamente viables, la recolección de huevos es no invasiva y la purificación de anticuerpos IgY es rápida y fácil, la inmunización de la gallina es una excelente alternativa para la producción de anticuerpos policlonales. A nuestro entender, esta es el primer anti-veneno contra serpiente de coral preparado en aves.

Biochemical and biological characterisation of lancehead (Bothrops venezuelensis Sandner 1952) snake venom from the Venezuelan Central Coastal range.

Venom fractions isolated from Bothrops venezuelensis were shown to contain a broad spectrum of proteins with varied activities. This study describes venom fractions with coagulant, haemorrhagic, fibrinolytic, proteolytic and antiplatelet activities, and analyses their physico-chemical properties and biological activities via molecular exclusion chromatography, gel electrophoresis and a bioassay battery. The LD50, determined by injecting intraperitoneally serial dilutions of B. venezuelensis venom into mice, was 6.39 mg/kg body weight. Twelve fractions were collected from B. venezuelensis venom using molecular exclusion chromatography. Of these, fractions 1-5 and 7-9 showed haemorrhagic activity, and all fractions except 3 and 6 showed fibrinolytic activity. However, none of the fractions had significant gelatinase activity, and only fractions 4-6 demonstrated activity on hide powder azure. With the exception of fractions 1 and 4, all fractions hydrolysed the insulin B-chain. In addition, all fractions as well as the crude venom showed strong procoagulant activity when tested using a Sonoclot Analyzer. Fractions 1, 3, 5 and 9 inhibited platelet function. In this study we have described the activities of the crude venom and its size-fractions from the scarcely studied B. venezuelensis. Haemorrhagic, fibrinolytic, procoagulant and proteolytic activities, and the inhibition of platelet function were detected. This preliminary study paves the way for the identification of specific molecules in B. venezuelensis venom that could have therapeutic potential for cancer and aberrant haemostasis treatment.

Se aislaron fracciones del veneno de Bothrops venezuelensis que demuestran ser un espectro abundante de proteínas con actividades variadas (coagulante, hemorrágica, fibrinolítica, proteolítica y de función plaquetaria), para el análisis de sus propiedades físico-químicas y biológicas, el veneno fue fraccionado por cromatografía de exclusión molecular, corrido en una electroforesis en gel y realizada una batería de ensayos biológicos. La DL50 del veneno de B. venezuelensis fue 6,39 mg/kg de peso corporal, fue determinada inyectando intraperitonealmente en ratones, diluciones seriadas de veneno de B. venezuelensis. Se colectaron doce fracciones a partir del veneno de B. venezuelensis mediante cromatografía de exclusión molecular. Las fracciones 1­5 y 7­9 tenían actividad hemorrágica. Todas las fracciones, con la excepción de las fracciones 3 y 6, tenían actividad fibrinolítica. Ninguna de las fracciones tuvo actividad de gelatinasa significativa, y sólo fracciones 4­6 demostraron actividad en polvo azul de ocultamiento. Con la excepción de las fracciones 1 y 4, todas hidrolizaron la cadena ß de la insulina. Cada fracción del veneno, así como el veneno crudo mostraron actividad procoagulante, cuando se probó en un analizador Sonoclot. Las fracciones 1, 3, 5 y 9 inhibieron la función plaquetaria. En este estudio se señalan actividades biológicas de un veneno poco estudiado (B. venezuelensis) y sus fracciones. Al detectar actividades hemorrágicas, fibrinolíticas, procoagulantes, proteolíticas y de inhibición de la función plaquetaria. Este estudio preliminar abre el camino para la identificación de moléculas específicas que podrían tener potencial terapéutico en hemostasia y cáncer, que vienen siendo estudiados en nuestro grupo.

Functional characterization of fibrinolytic metalloproteinases (colombienases) isolated from Bothrops colombiensis venom.

UNLABELLED: Researchers trying to improve the safety and efficacy of fibrinolytic therapy have been isolating fibrinolytic enzymes from snake venoms. Two fibrinolytic enzymes, colombienases 1 and 2, with significant activity have been isolated from the venom of Bothrops colombiensis. METHODS: The colombienases were characterized for various biological activities which include hemorrhagic, fibrinogenolytic, proteolytic, hemolytic, edematogenic and cytotoxic. RESULTS: Colombienases directly acted on fibrin by degrading fibrinogen Aα and Bß chains without activating the fibrinolytic system (plasminogen/plasmin), additionally colombienase-2 degraded fibrinogen γ chains as well as the fibronectin molecule. Laminin and type IV collagen were colombienases resistant. Gelatin-zymogram activity was present in B. colombiensis venom (BcV) bands between 64 and 148 kDa. All activities were abolished by metalloproteinases inhibitors. Both enzymes lacked hemorrhagic, hemolytic, cytotoxic, plasminogen activator and coagulant activities. CONCLUSIONS: Both colombienases had direct fibrino(geno)lytic activity without other toxic side effects including in vivo hemorrhaging, which could be promising in terms of therapeutic potential as thrombolytic agents.

Isolation and characterization of two new non-hemorrhagic metalloproteinases with fibrinogenolytic activity from the mapanare (Bothrops colombiensis) venom.

Colombienases are acidic, low molecular weight metalloproteinases (Mr of 23,074.31 Da colombienase-1 and 23,078.80 Da colombienase-2; pI of 6.0 and 6.2, respectively) isolated from Bothrops colombiensis snake venom. The chromatographic profile in RP-HPLC and its partial sequence confirmed its high homogeneity. Both colombienases present fibrino(geno)lytic activity, but did not show any hemorrhagic, amidolytic, plasminogen activator or coagulant activities, and no effect on platelet aggregation induced by collagen or ADP. Both enzymes were strongly active on fibrinogen Aα chains followed by the Bß chains, and colombienases-2, at high doses, also degraded the γ chains. This activity was stable at temperatures ranging between 4 and 37 °C, with a maximum activity at 25 °C, and at pHs between 7 and 9. The homology demonstrated by the comparison of sequences, with zinc-dependent metalloproteinases, as well as the metal chelant effects on, confirmed that the colombienases were metalloproteinases, particularly to α-fibrinogenases belonging to the P-I class of SVPMs (20-30 kDa), which contain only the single-domain proteins. The biological characteristics of the colombienases confer a therapeutic potential, since they contain a high fibrino(geno)lytic activity, devoid of hemorrhagic activity. These metalloproteinases might be explored as thrombolytic agents given that they dissolve fibrin clots or prevent their formation.

Hemostatic and toxinological diversities in venom of Micrurus tener tener, Micrurus fulvius fulvius and Micrurus isozonus coral snakes.

The coral snake Micrurus tener tener (Mtt) from the Elapidae family inhabits the southwestern United States and produces severe cases of envenomations. Although the majority of Mtt venom components are neurotoxins and phospholipase A2s, this study demonstrated, by SDS-PAGE and molecular exclusion chromatography (MEC), that these venoms also contain high-molecular-weight proteins between 50 and 150 kDa that target the hemostatic system. The biological aspects of other Micrurus venoms were also studied, such as the LD50s of Micrurus isozonus (from 0.52 to 0.61 mg/kg). A pool from these venoms presented a LD50 of 0.57 mg/kg, Micrurus f. fulvius (Mff) and Mtt had LD50s of 0.32 and 0.78 mg/kg, respectively. These venoms contained fibrino(geno)lytic activity, they inhibited platelet aggregation, as well as factor Xa and/or plasmin-like activities. M. isozonus venoms from different Venezuelan geographical regions inhibited ADP-induced platelet aggregation (from 50 to 68%). Micrurus tener tener venom from the United States was the most active with a 95.2% inhibitory effect. This venom showed thrombin-like activity on fibrinogen and human plasma. Fractions of Mtt showed fibrino(geno)lytic activity and inhibition on plasmin amidolytic activity. Several fractions degraded the fibrinogen Aα chains, and fractions F2 and F7 completely degraded both fibrinogen Aα and Bß chains. To our knowledge, this is the first report on thrombin-like and fibrino(geno)lytic activity and plasmin or factor Xa inhibitors described in Micrurus venoms. Further purification and characterization of these Micrurus venom components could be of therapeutic use in the treatment of hemostatic disorders.

Purification and characterization of a metalloproteinase, Porthidin-1, from the venom of Lansberg's hog-nosed pitvipers (Porthidium lansbergii hutmanni).

Porthidium lansbergii hutmanni is a small pit viper found on Margarita Island, Venezuela. Local tissue damage is one of the most obvious characteristics of P. l. hutmanni envenomation, which can lead to diverse pathological effects, such as hemorrhage, edema, blistering, necrosis, lymphatic vessel damage and degradation of extracellular matrix. Metalloproteinases are one of the major components in venoms responsible for these effects. To date, very little is known or has been reported on P. l. hutmanni venom. Crude P. l. hutmanni venom had a LD(50) of 2.5 mg/kg and was considered very hemorrhagic (minimal hemorrhagic dose [MHD]: 0.98 µg) when compared to other hemorrhagic (Bothrops) venoms in Venezuela. Crude P. l. hutmanni venom also inhibited ADP-induced platelet aggregation. A metalloproteinase, Porthidin-1, from this venom was isolated by three chromatography steps (Sephadex G100, Superose 12 HR10/30 and Bioscale Q2). Porthidin-1 falls in the SVMP P-I class having a molecular weight of 23 kDa, verified by both SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry. High-resolution mass spectrometry and a database search identified a peptide from Porthidin-1 (YNGDLDK) belonging to the SVMP family of proteins. Porthidin-1 contained hemorrhagic, fibrino(geno)lytic, caseinolytic and gelatinolytic activities, and these activities were capable of being neutralized by metalloproteinase inhibitors but not serine proteinase inhibitors. The peptide YNGDLDK shared similarities with five venom proteins with a BLAST e-value of <1. This work details the biochemical and pathophysiological effects that can result from envenomations, and highlights the importance and significance for characterizing unknown or poorly documented venoms from different geographical regions.

Hemostatic properties of Venezuelan Bothrops snake venoms with special reference to Bothrops isabelae venom.

In Venezuela, Bothrops snakes are responsible for more than 80% of all recorded snakebites. This study focuses on the biological and hemostatic characteristics of Bothrops isabelae venom along with its comparative characteristics with two other closely related Bothrops venoms, Bothrops atrox and Bothrops colombiensis. Electrophoretic profiles of crude B. isabelae venom showed protein bands between 14 and 100 kDa with the majority in the range of 14-31 kDa. The molecular exclusion chromatographic profile of this venom contains five fractions (F1-F5). Amidolytic activity evaluation evidenced strong thrombin-like followed by kallikrein-like activities in crude venom and in fractions F1 and F2. The fibrinogenolytic activity of B. isabelae venom at a ratio of 100:1 (fibrinogen/venom) induced a degradation of A alpha and B beta chains at 15 min and 2 h, respectively. At a ratio of 100:10, a total degradation of A alpha and B beta chains at 5 min and of gamma chains at 24 h was apparent. This current study evidences one of rarely reported for Bothrops venoms, which resembles the physiologic effect of plasmin. B. isabelae venom as well as F2 and F3 fractions, contain fibrinolytic activity on fibrin plate of 36, 23.5 and 9.45 mm(2)/microg, respectively using 25 microg of protein. Crude venom and F1 fraction showed gelatinolytic activity. Comparative analysis amongst Venezuelan bothropoid venoms, evidenced that the LD(50) of B. isabelae (5.9 mg/kg) was similar to B. atrox-Puerto Ayacucho 1 (6.1 mg/kg) and B. colombiensis-Caucagua (5.8 mg/kg). B. isabelae venom showed minor hemorrhagic activity, whereas B. atrox-Parguasa (Bolivar state) was the most hemorrhagic. In this study, a relative high thrombin-like activity was observed in B. colombiensis venoms (502-568 mUA/min/mg), and a relative high factor Xa-like activity was found in B. atrox venoms (126-294 mUA/min/mg). Fibrinolytic activity evaluated with 10 microg protein, showed that B. isabelae venom contained higher specific activity (50 mm(2)/microg) than B. colombiensis and B. atrox venoms, which should encourage the isolation of these fibrinolytic molecules to improve the quality of immunotherapy.

Enfermedad Celiaca en familiares de primer grado: Familia nuclear con 5 miembros afectados

La Enfermedad Celíaca (EC) se define como una enteropatía mediada inmunológicamente por una sensibilidad permanente al gluten en individuos genéticamente susceptible. Estudios epidemiológicos en América y Europa reportan una prevalencia aproximada entre 0,5 a 1% entre la población general. En los Estados Unidos solo de 10 a 15% o menos de estos individuos son diagnosticados y tratados. Existe una fuerte susceptibilidad genética en el desarrollo de EC, como lo confirma la elevada concordancia observada en gemelos monocigóticos, que llega hasta un 75%. Se encuentra una elevada prevalencia en familiares de primer y segundo grado que oscila entre 4-12%, esta relación es debida, en gran parte, a la existencia de una importante base genética condicionada por la presencia de antígenos de clase HLA-II (DQ2 y DQ8). Se presenta el caso de una familia nuclear constituida por 5 miembros, en la cual se lleva a cabo el screening para EC a partir de un caso índice, obteniendo como resultado que el 100% (5/5) del grupo familiar se encuentra positivo desde el punto de vista serológico para EC (Anticuerpos Anti TTG fracción Ig A), siendo necesario resaltar que el 40% de este grupo familiar se encuentra asintomático al momento del diagnostico, tanto desde el punto de vista gastrointestinal como no gastrointestinal. Consideramos, que es imperativo el estudio de las familias donde sea detectado al menos un caso de EC, debido a que la prevalencia de la penetración en un grupo familiar puede alcanzar hasta el 100%.

Celiac disease (CD) is an immune enteropathy mediated by a permanent sensitivity to gluten in genetically susceptible individuals. Previous studies in Europe and America reported prevalence estimated between 0.5 to 1% among the general population. In the United States only 10 to 15% or less of these individuals are diagnosed and treated. There is a strong genetic susceptibility in the development of CD, as confirmed by the high concordance observed in monozygotic twins, which reaches up to 75%. There is a high prevalence in first and second degree relatives that ranges between 4-12%; this relationship is due, in large part, to the existence of a significant genetic basis conditioned by the presence of HLA antigens class-II (DQ2 and DQ8). A case of a nuclear family consisting of 5 members was screened for CD from an index case, which resulted in 100% (5 / 5) of the family, was positive for serological CD (TTG Antibodies Ig fraction A). We have to address that 40% of this family are asymptomatic at diagnosis, both in terms of gastrointestinal and non gastrointestinal symptoms. We believe that the study of a family group in which at least one of the members is diagnosed with CD is imperative; due to the high prevalence level of household penetration CD, which can reach, up to 100%.

Anti-platelet effect of cumanastatin 1, a disintegrin isolated from venom of South American Crotalus rattlesnake.

Disintegrins have been previously described in the venom of several snake families inhibiting signal transduction, cell-cell interactions, and cell-matrix interactions and may have therapeutic potential in heart attacks, thrombotic diseases, and cancers. This investigation describes the first disintegrin isolated from South American Crotalus venom (Venezuelan rattlesnake Crotalus durissus cumanensis), which inhibits platelet adhesion to matrix proteins. C. d. cumanensis crude venom was first separated on a Sephadex G-100 column into 4 fractions (SI to SIV). Crude venom and SIII fraction significantly diminished platelet adhesion to fibrinogen (Fg) and to fibronectin (Fn). Anti-adhesive SIII fraction was further separated by DEAE-Sephacel followed by C-18 reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The platelet anti-adhesive fraction obtained was designated as cumanastatin-1. This disintegrin has a mass of 7.442 kDa as determined by mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/TOF) and pI of 8.5. Cumanastatin-1 also inhibited ADP-induced platelet aggregation with an IC(50) of 158 nM. However, it did not significantly inhibit collagen and thrombin-induced platelet aggregation. Cumanastatin-1 considerably inhibited anti-alpha(IIb)beta(3) integrin binding to platelets in a dose-dependent manner; however, it did not present any effect on the alpha(5)beta(1) integrin or on P-selectin.

Inhibition of the hemorrhagic and proteolytic activities of Lansberg's hognose pit viper (Porthidium lansbergii hutmanni) venom by opossum (Didelphis marsupialis) serum: isolation of Didelphis marsupialis 0.15Dm fraction on DEAE-cellulose chromatography.

Earlier studies have revealed the ability of sera from several mammals to neutralize the toxic effects of snake venom. The Venezuelan opossum (Didelphis marsupialis) is one that has been found to inhibit hemorrhagic and proteolytic activities of venoms from many species of snakes. In this article it is shown that the opossum sera and its 0.15DM fraction were able to completely neutralize both hemorrhagic and hydrolysis (proteolysis) of casein effects induced by venom of the Lansberg's hognose pit viper (Porthidium lansbergii hutmanni). We have used DEAE-cellulose ion exchange chromatography to collect protein fractions from D. marsupialis sera which were able to defend mice from the lethal effects of P.l. hutmanni venom. The fractions separated were homogeneous by conventional electrophoresis using SDS-PAGE. The protein bands obtained contained molecular weights of approximately 6 to 220 kDa. These results revealed the presence of proteases inhibitors in the opossum sera fractions and the inhibition of venom activity by opossum sera suggesting a reciprocal adaptation at the molecular level.

Intraspecies differences in hemostatic venom activities of the South American rattlesnakes, Crotalus durissus cumanensis, as revealed by a range of protease inhibitors.

Crotalus durissus cumanensis is an endemic rattlesnake found in Venezuela and Colombia. In this study, a comparative analysis of hemorrhagic, coagulation and fibrino(geno)lytic activities in the presence or absence of protease inhibitors was performed with venoms of the same species Crotalus durissus cumanensis, from seven geographical regions of Venezuela (Lagunetica, Santa Teresa, Carrizales, Guarenas, Anzoátegui, Margarita and Maracay). Lagunetica, Carrizales and Anzoátegui venoms induced hemorrhagic activity. All venoms, except that of snakes from the Carrizales region presented thrombin-like activity, which was inhibited completely by phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride and ethylene glycol-bis-N, N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid. This effect of the latter could be explained by the high chelant calcium effect, which is a cofactor for the fibrin polymerization process. Soybean trypsin inhibitor was effective on Santa Teresa venom. Antithrombin III/Hep complex and phenantroline partially inhibited this activity in all venoms except Margarita and Anzoátegui, respectively, which were not inhibited. Serine protease inhibitors were more effective against thrombin, kallikrein and plasmin-like amidolytic activities. Additionally, metalloprotease inhibitors significantly inhibited the t-PA-like amidolytic activity and completely the hemorrhagic and fibrino(geno)lytic activities. In conclusion, the thrombin-like activity observed in these venoms was partially reduced by serine protease inhibitors, indicating the possible presence of catalytic domains in those enzymes that do not interact with these inhibitors. Using protease inhibitors on venom hemostatic activities could contribute to our understanding of the active components of snake venom on the hemostatic system, and further reveal the intraspecies variation of venoms, which is important in the treatment of envenomation, and in addition represents an interesting model for the study of venom in hemostasis.

Use of hen egg derived immunoglobulin against scolopendra (Scolopendra gigantea) venom

Las picaduras de escolopendra (Scolopendra gigantea) en seres humanos y animales domésticos representan un accidente agudo y muy doloroso. La necrosis y otros daños ocasionados por este veneno pueden ser prevenidos, si se inyecta un antiveneno. Este estudio propone producir anticuerpos policlonales en gallinas hiper-inmunizadas contra el veneno de escolopendra (Scolopendra gigantea Linneaus 1758). Un grupo de gallinas fue inyectado subcutánea e intramuscularmente con diluciones de venenos, de acuerdo con tres rutinas diferentes. Los huevos fueron recogidos diariamente y los anticuerpos en la yema fueron purificados con un método modificado de polietilen-glicol y cloroformo. Los niveles de anticuerpos en yema fueron calculados con prueba de precipitación de gel de agar y pruebas de protección (ED50). Los huevos cosechados 15 días post-inyección tenían los títulos más altos de anticuerpos. Después de seis meses, los anticuerpos liofilizados y guardados a 5°C mantenían su actividad. Ratones envenenados, inyectados posteriormente con anticuerpos purificados, tuvieron un 100% de supervivencia al compararse con los controles. La limpieza, la eficacia, y la sencillez de producir los antivenenos en gallina, y la incapacidad de estos anticuerpos (IgY) para fijarse al complemento humano, formulan una alternativa interesante a otros antivenenos producidos en mamíferos. Este estudio puntualiza que los anticuerpos de huevo de gallina pueden ser provechosos como un instrumento terapéutico para tratar escolopendrismo en seres humanos y animales domésticos. Además, abre un campo terapéutico para la fabricación de otros antivenenos contra el espectro amplio de las toxinas y como probable herramienta de diagnóstico.

A scolopendra sting in humans and domestic animals is an acute and highly painful accident. The present study was an attempt to raise specific hyper-immune polyclonal antibodies against scolopendra centipede (Scolopendra gigantea Linneaus 1758) venom. A group of hens were injected with venoms subcutaneously and intramuscularly according to three different routines. This protocol was found to be effective for hyperimmunization. Eggs were gathered daily and antibodies were purified from yolk with a polyethylene-glycol and chloroform modified method. Titers of antibodies in yolk were estimated with an agar gel precipitation test, and a serum protection (ED50) test. Eggs harvested at 15 days post-injection had maximum antibody titers. After six months, antibodies lyophilized and stored at 5°C still maintained their activity. Envenomed mice were injected with purified antibodies, which induced 100% recovery as compared to those not treated with the antibodies. The cleanliness, effectiveness, and simplicity of producing antibodies against scolopendra venom in avian egg yolk, and their incapability to attach human complement, formulates an interesting option to equine and other mammalian antivenoms. This study infers that avian egg yolk antibodies may be useful as a therapeutic tool in treating scolopendrism in humans and domestic animals. It also opens a field for the production of other antivenoms against the wide spectrum of toxins as well as the use of these antibodies as a diagnostic tool.