Instruction on the Scientific Method Provides (Some) Protection Against Illusions of Causality.

People tend to overestimate the efficacy of an ineffective treatment when they experience the treatment and its supposed outcome co-occurring frequently. This is referred to as the outcome density effect. Here, we attempted to improve the accuracy of participants' assessments of an ineffective treatment by instructing them about the scientific practice of comparing treatment effects against a relevant base-rate, i.e., when no treatment is delivered. The effect of these instructions was assessed in both a trial-by-trial contingency learning task, where cue administration was either decided by the participant (Experiments 1 & 2) or pre-determined by the experimenter (Experiment 3), as well as in summary format where all information was presented on a single screen (Experiment 4). Overall, we found two means by which base-rate instructions influence efficacy ratings for the ineffective treatment: 1) When information was presented sequentially, the benefit of base-rate instructions on illusory belief was mediated by reduced sampling of cue-present trials, and 2) When information was presented in summary format, we found a direct effect of base-rate instruction on reducing causal illusion. Together, these findings suggest that simple instructions on the scientific method were able to decrease participants' (over-)weighting of cue-outcome coincidences when making causal judgements, as well as decrease their tendency to over-sample cue-present events. However, the effect of base-rate instructions on correcting illusory beliefs was incomplete, and participants still showed illusory causal judgements when the probability of the outcome occurring was high. Thus, simple textual information about assessing causal relationships is partially effective in influencing people's judgements of treatment efficacy, suggesting an important role of scientific instruction in debiasing cognitive errors.

To kill or not to kill: A systematic literature review of high-stakes moral decision-making measures and their psychometric properties.

Introduction: The present systematic review investigates the psychological tools available for capturing high-stakes decisions involving life-death content and their psychometric properties. Valid measurement of these individual differences will provide crucial information in the personnel selection and training in fields where high-stakes moral issues exist (e.g., military, medicine). To our knowledge, this is the first systematic examination of such instruments. Methods: Systematic searches of 6 electronic databases were conducted according to the PRISMA guidelines. An appraisal tool evaluated the quality of identified measures. Twenty studies met pre-determined inclusion criteria. Moral decision-making was assessed with either a self-report scale (n = 3) or moral dilemmas (n = 17). Results: The findings identified two measures, the Defining Issues Test and the Oxford Utilitarianism Scale as psychometrically sound measures of moral decision-making. However, they are unlikely to be considered "gold standard" measures due to their theoretically specific, but limited, scope. Overall, the findings suggest that research in the area has been scattered. There is a lack of consensus on the definition of moral decision-making, and a lack of cross-validation on how different measures of moral decision-making relate to each other. This presents a gap between theory and empirical measurement in moral decision-making. Further work is needed for a unified conceptualization of moral decision-making to pave the way to both theory development and the development of well-validated measurement tools, and this review provides a critical foundation for both.

Scalable Science Education via Online Cooperative Questioning.

A critical goal for science education is to design and implement learning activities that develop a deep conceptual understanding, are engaging for students, and are scalable for large classes or those with few resources. Approaches based on peer learning and online technologies show promise for scalability but often lack a grounding in cognitive learning principles relating to conceptual understanding. Here, we present a novel design for combining these elements in a principled way. The design centers on having students author multiple-choice questions for their peers using the online platform PeerWise, where beneficial forms of cognitive engagement are encouraged via a series of supporting activities. We evaluated an implementation of this design within a cohort of 632 students in an undergraduate biochemistry course. Our results show a robust relationship between the quality of question authoring and relevant learning outcomes, even after controlling for the confounding influence of prior grades. We conclude by discussing practical and theoretical implications.

Analogy Generation in Science Experts and Novices.

There is a critical inconsistency in the literature on analogical retrieval. On the one hand, a vast set of laboratory studies has found that people often fail to retrieve past experiences that share deep relational commonalities, even when they would be useful for reasoning about a current problem. On the other hand, historical studies and naturalistic research show clear evidence of remindings based on deep relational commonalities. Here, we examine a possible explanation for this inconsistency-namely, that remindings based on relational principles increase as a function of expertise. To test this claim, we devised a simple analogy-generation task that can be administered across a wide range of expertise. We presented common events as the bases from which to generate analogies. Although the events themselves were unrelated to geoscience, we found that when the event was explainable in terms of a causal principle that is prominent in geoscience, expert geoscientists were likely to spontaneously produce analogies from geoscience that relied on the same principle. Further, for these examples, prompts to produce causal analogies increased their frequency among nonscientists and scientists from another domain, but not among expert geoscientists (whose spontaneous causal retrieval levels were already high). In contrast, when the example was best explained by a principle outside of geoscience, all groups required prompting to produce substantial numbers of analogies based on causal principles. Overall, this pattern suggests that the spontaneous use of causal principles is characteristic of experts. We suggest that expert scientists adopt habitual patterns of encoding according to the key relational principles in their domain, and that this contributes to their propensity to spontaneously retrieve relational matches. We discuss implications for the nature of expertise and for science instruction and assessment.

Linguistic syncopation: Meter-syntax alignment affects sentence comprehension and sensorimotor synchronization.

The hierarchical organization of speech rhythm into meter putatively confers cognitive affordances for perception, memory, and motor coordination. Meter also aligns with phrasal structure in systematic ways. In this paper, we show that this alignment affects the robustness of syntactic comprehension and discuss possible underlying mechanisms. In two experiments, we manipulated meter-syntax alignment while sentences with relative clause structures were either read as text (experiment 1, n = 40) or listened to as speech (experiment 2, n = 40). In experiment 2, we also measured the stability with which participants could tap in time with the metrical accents in the sentences they were comprehending. In addition to making more mistakes, sensorimotor synchronization was disrupted when syntactic cues clashed with the metrical context. We suggest that this reflects a tight coordination of top-down linguistic knowledge with the sensorimotor system to optimize comprehension.

A national harmonised data collection network for neurodevelopmental disorders: A transdiagnostic assessment protocol for neurodevelopment, mental health, functioning and well-being.

Background: Children with neurodevelopmental disorders share common phenotypes, support needs and comorbidities. Such overlap suggests the value of transdiagnostic assessment pathways that contribute to knowledge about research and clinical needs of these children and their families. Despite this, large transdiagnostic data collection networks for neurodevelopmental disorders are not well developed. This paper describes the development of a nationally supported transdiagnostic clinical and research assessment protocol across Australia. The vision is to establish a harmonised network for data collection and collaboration that promotes transdiagnostic clinical practice and research. Methods: Clinicians, researchers and community groups across Australia were consulted using surveys and national summits to identify assessment instruments and unmet needs. A national research committee was formed and, using a consensus approach, selected assessment instruments according to pre-determined criteria to form a harmonised transdiagnostic assessment protocol. Results: Identified assessment instruments were clustered into domains of transdiagnostic assessment needs, which included child functioning/quality of life, child mental health, caregiver mental health, and family background information. From this, the research committee identified a core set of nine measures and an extended set of 14 measures that capture these domains with potential for further modifications as recommended by clinicians, researchers and community members. Conclusion: The protocol proposed here was established through a strong partnership between clinicians, researchers and the community. It will enable (i) consensus driven transdiagnostic clinical assessments for children with neurodevelopmental disorders, and (ii) research studies that will inform large transdiagnostic datasets across neurodevelopmental disorders and that can be used to inform research and policy beyond narrow diagnostic groups. The long-term vision is to use this framework to facilitate collaboration across clinics to enable large-scale data collection and research. Ultimately, the transdiagnostic assessment data can be used to inform practice and improve the lives of children with neurodevelopmental disorders and their families.

Relational rule discovery in complex discrimination learning.

Failure to learn and generalize abstract relational rules has critical implications for education. In this study, we aimed to determine which training conditions facilitate relational transfer in a relatively simple (patterning) discrimination versus a relatively complex (biconditional) discrimination. The amount of training participants received had little influence on rates of relational transfer. Instead, trial-sequencing of the training contingencies influenced relational transfer in different ways depending on the complexity of the discrimination. Clustering instances of relational rules together during training improved transfer of both simpler patterning and more difficult biconditional rules, regardless of individual differences in cognitive reflection. However, blocking all trials of the same type together improved rule transfer only for biconditional discriminations. Individual differences in cognitive reflection were also more predictive of relational rule use under suboptimal training conditions. The results highlight the need for comprehensive accounts of relational learning to consider how learning conditions and individual differences affect the likelihood of engaging in learning relational structures. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Children's understanding of habitual behaviour.

Research into the development of Theory of Mind (ToM) has shown how children from a very early age infer other people's goals. However, human behaviour is sometimes driven not by plans to achieve goals, but by habits, which are formed over long periods of reinforcement. Habitual and goal-directed behaviours are often aligned with one another but can diverge when the optimal behavioural policy changes without being directly reinforced (thus specifically hobbling the habitual learning strategy). Unlike the flexibility of goal-directed behaviour, rigid habits can cause agents to persist in behaviour that is no longer adaptive. In the current study, all children predict agents will tend to behave consistently with their goals, but between the ages of 5 and 10, children showed an increasing understanding of how habits can cause agents to persistently take suboptimal actions. These findings stand out from the typical way the development of social reasoning is examined, which instead focuses on children's increasing appreciation of how others' beliefs or expectations affect how they will act in service of their goals. The current findings show that children also learn that under certain circumstances, people's actions are suboptimal despite potentially 'knowing better.'

Can a relational mindset boost analogical retrieval?

BACKGROUND: Memory retrieval is driven by similarity between a present situation and some prior experience, but not all similarity is created equal. Analogical retrieval, rooted in the similarity between two situations in their underlying structural relations, is often responsible for new insights and innovative solutions to problems. However, superficial similarity is instead more likely to drive spontaneous retrieval. How can we make analogical retrieval more likely? Inducing a relational mindset via an analogical reasoning task has previously been shown to boost subsequent relational thinking. In this paper, we examined whether inducing a relational mindset could also boost analogical retrieval. RESULTS: We find that a relational mindset can increase analogical retrieval if induced before information is encoded in the first place, amplifying the effect of a clearly labelled relational structure. On the other hand, inducing a relational mindset at the time of retrieval did not increase analogical retrieval. CONCLUSION: This work further demonstrates the central importance of high-quality relational encoding for subsequent relation-based analogical retrieval, and that inducing a relational mindset can improve those encodings.

Speech Facilitates the Categorization of Motions in 9-Month-Old Infants.

Two experiments were used to investigate the influence of both native and non-native speech on the categorization of a set of an object's motions by 9-month-olds. In Experiment 1, infants were habituated to a set of three object motions and tested with familiar and novel motions. Results of Experiment 1 show that infants were more likely to categorize the motion stimuli if they listened to either the native or non-native speech during the categorization process than if they listened to music or heard nothing at all. Results of Experiment 2 show that discrimination of the motions was not impaired by the presence of the labeling phrases. These results are consistent with a number of findings that report a unique influence of labels on categorization of static objects in infancy and extend those findings to categorization of motions.

Relational discovery in category learning.

Learning categories defined by the relations among objects supports the transfer of knowledge from initial learning contexts to novel contexts that share few surface similarities. Often relational categories have correlated (but nonessential) surface features, which can be a distraction from discovering the category-defining relations, preventing knowledge transfer. This is one explanation for "the inert knowledge problem" in education wherein many students fail to spontaneously apply their learning outside the classroom. Here we present a series of experiments using artificial categories that correlate surface features and relational patterns during learning. Our goal was to determine what task parameters and individual differences in learners shift focus to the relational aspect of the category and foster transfer to novel disparate exemplars. We consistently showed that the effectiveness of task structure manipulations (e.g., the sequence of learning exemplars) depended on the learners' strategies (e.g., whether learners are oriented toward discovering rules or focusing on exemplars). Further, we found support that "inference-learning," wherein learners are presented with incomplete exemplars and learn how to infer the missing pieces, is an effective way to promote relational discovery and transfer, even for learners who are not predisposed to make such discoveries. (PsycINFO Database Record

Can you catch Ebola from a stork bite? Inductive reasoning influences generalization of perceived zoonosis risk.

Emerging zoonoses are a prominent global health threat. Human beliefs are central to drivers of emerging zoonoses, yet little is known about how people make inferences about risk in such scenarios. We present an inductive account of zoonosis risk perception, suggesting that beliefs about the range of animals able to transmit diseases to each other influence how people generalize risks to other animals and health behaviors. Consistent with our account, in Study 1, we find that participants who endorse higher likelihoods of cross-species disease transmission have stronger intentions to report animal bites. In Study 2, using real-world descriptions of Ebola virus from the WHO and CDC, we find that communications conveying a broader range of animals as susceptible to the virus increase intentions to report animal bites and decrease perceived safety of wild game meat. These results suggest that inductive reasoning principles may be harnessed to modulate zoonosis risk perception and combat emerging infectious diseases.

Grammatical Constructions as Relational Categories.

This paper argues that grammatical constructions, specifically argument structure constructions that determine the "who did what to whom" part of sentence meaning and how this meaning is expressed syntactically, can be considered a kind of relational category. That is, grammatical constructions are represented as the abstraction of the syntactic and semantic relations of the exemplar utterances that are expressed in that construction, and it enables the generation of novel exemplars. To support this argument, I review evidence that there are parallel behavioral patterns between how children learn relational categories generally and how they learn grammatical constructions specifically. Then, I discuss computational simulations of how grammatical constructions are abstracted from exemplar sentences using a domain-general relational cognitive architecture. Last, I review evidence from adult language processing that shows parallel behavioral patterns with expert behavior from other cognitive domains. After reviewing the evidence, I consider how to integrate this account with other theories of language development.

Will human-like machines make human-like mistakes?

Although we agree with Lake et al.'s central argument, there are numerous flaws in the way people use causal models. Our models are often incorrect, resistant to correction, and applied inappropriately to new situations. These deficiencies are pervasive and have real-world consequences. Developers of machines with similar capacities should proceed with caution.

Relational categories as a bridge between cognitive and educational research.

Both cognitive and educational psychology literature strive to investigate human category and concept learning. However, both literatures focus on different phenomena and often use different methodologies. We identify and discuss commonalities and differences between the literatures. This literature comparison reveals that research on relational category learning offers a promising avenue to integration. We suggest that this integration would be especially beneficial to advance our understanding of conceptual change essentially, how complex scientific concepts and categories are acquired and developed in educational contexts elaborating or correcting students' prior conceptions. Furthermore, the focus on relational categories allows us to provide an integrative discussion on how recent lines of research on analogy, memory and category learning, and knowledge restructuring relate to and can inform education. In general, this article advocates the complementary nature of cognitive and educational psychology and identifies viable, and potentially synergistic paths for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record

Rule abstraction, model-based choice, and cognitive reflection.

Numerous tasks in learning and cognition have demonstrated differences in response patterns that may reflect the operation of two distinct systems. For example, causal and reinforcement learning tasks each show responding that considers abstract structure as well as responding based on simple associations. Nevertheless, there has been little attempt to verify whether these tasks are measuring related processes. The current study therefore investigated the relationship between rule- and feature-based generalization in a causal learning task, and model-based and model-free responding in a reinforcement learning task, including cognitive reflection as a predictor of individual tendencies to use controlled, deliberative processes in these tasks. We found that the use of rule-based generalization in a patterning task was a significant predictor of model-based, but not model-free, choice. Individual differences in cognitive reflection were significantly correlated with performance in both tasks, although this did not predict variation in model-based choice independently of rule-based generalization. Thus, although there is evidence of stable individual differences in the use of higher order processes across tasks, there may also be differences in mechanisms that these tasks reveal.

Learning of role-governed and thematic categories.

Natural categories are often based on intrinsic characteristics, such as shared features, but they can also be based on extrinsic relationships to items outside the categories. Examples of relational categories include items that share a thematic relation or items that share a common role. Five experiments used an artificial category learning paradigm to investigate whether people can learn role-governed and thematic categories without explicit instruction or linguistic support. Participants viewed film clips in which objects were engaged in similar actions and then were asked to group together objects that they believed were in the same category. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated that while people spontaneously grouped items using both role-governed and thematic relations, when forced to choose between the two, most preferred role-governed categories. In Experiment 3, category labels increased this preference. Experiment 4 found that people failed to group items based on more abstract role relations when the specific relations differed (e.g., objects that prevented different actions). However, Experiment 5 showed that people could identify them with the aid of comparison. We concluded that people can form role-governed categories even with minimal perceptual and linguistic cues.

Licensing Novel Role-Governed Categories: An ERP Analysis.

Markman and Stilwell (2001) argued that many natural categories name roles in relational systems, and so they are role-governed categories. This view predicts instantiating a novel relational structure licenses the creation of novel role-governed categories. This paper supports this claim and helps to specify the mechanisms underlying this licensing. Event-related potentials were recorded while participants read passages of text. Participants instantiated novel relational representations by interpreting novel verbs derived from nouns during reading. Sentences later, comprehension of novel role terms derived from the novel verb was facilitated relative to a control condition where the novel verb was paraphrased using the root noun in its familiar form. This comprehension facilitation was marked by a reduced negativity elicited from the role term in the Novel Verb condition relative to the Paraphrase from 400 to 500 ms post-stimulus-onset. This relative difference in negativity is consistent with both the N400, which is a marker of semantic integration, and the Nref effect, which reflects the working memory load required to resolve reference. Additionally, because this increased negativity persisted until 670 ms post-stimulus-onset, and not that the Paraphrase condition elicited an increased positivity (i.e., the P600), we ruled out that the licensing effect is rooted in morphosyntactic processes.

On the acquisition of abstract knowledge: structural alignment and explication in learning causal system categories.

This research studies a relatively unexplored aspect of expertise - the ability to detect causal relational patterns in multiple contexts - and demonstrates learning processes that foster this ability. Using the Ambiguous Sorting Task (AST), in which domain information competes with causal patterns, we previously found that science experts spontaneously noticed and sorted by causal patterns such as positive feedback, while novices sorted primarily by content domain. We investigated two kinds of learning experiences that we claim are needed to achieve high fluency in detecting key cross-domain patterns. We found that direct explication of example phenomena increased people's accuracy in depicting the examples, but did not increase sensitivity to the causal patterns in new examples. However, analogical comparison between parallel examples did lead to greater propensity to detect the causal patterns across diverse examples. Combining within-example explication with between-example alignment led to the greatest gains in generalized sensitivity to causal patterns.