The women's health needs study among women from countries with high prevalence of female genital mutilation living in the United States: Design, methods, and participant characteristics.

BACKGROUND: The Women's Health Needs Study (WHNS) collected information on the health characteristics, needs, and experiences, including female genital mutilation (FGM) experiences, attitudes, and beliefs, of women aged 18 to 49 years who were born, or whose mothers were born, in a country where FGM is prevalent living in the US. The purpose of this paper is to describe the WHNS design, methods, strengths and limitations, as well as select demographic and health-related characteristics of participants. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional survey from November 2020 -June 2021 in four US metropolitan areas, using a hybrid venue-based sampling (VBS) and respondent-driven sampling (RDS) approach to identify women for recruitment. RESULTS: Of 1,132 participants, 395 were recruited via VBS and 737 RDS. Most were born, or their mothers were born, in either a West African country (Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Sierra Leone, The Gambia) (39.0%) or Ethiopia (30.7%). More than a third were aged 30-39 years (37.5%) with a majority who immigrated at ages ≥13 years (86.6%) and had lived in the United States for ≥5 years (68.9%). Medicaid was the top health insurer (52.5%), followed by private health insurance (30.5%); 17% of participants had no insurance. Nearly half of women reported 1-2 healthcare visits within the past 12 months (47.7%). One in seven did not get needed health care due to cost (14.8%). Over half have ever used contraception (52.1%) to delay or avoid pregnancy and 76.9% had their last pelvic and/or Papanicolaou (pap) exam within the past 3 years. More than half experienced FGM (55.0%). Nearly all women believed that FGM should be stopped (92.0%). CONCLUSION: The VBS/RDS approach enabled recruitment of a diverse study population. WHNS advances research related to the health characteristics, needs, and experiences of women living in the US from countries where FGM is prevalent.

Family carer experiences of hospice care at home: Qualitative findings from a mixed methods realist evaluation.

BACKGROUND: Hospice-at-home aims to enable patients approaching end-of-life to die at home and support their carers. A wide range of different service models exists but synthesised evidence on how best to support family carers to provide sustainable end-of-life care at home is limited. AIM: To explore what works best to promote family carers' experiences of hospice-at-home. DESIGN: Realist evaluation with mixed methods. This paper focuses on qualitative interviews with carers (to gain their perspective and as proxy for patients) and service providers from 12 case study sites in England. Interviews were coded and programme theories were refined by the research team including two public members. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: Interviews with carers (involved daily) of patients admitted to hospice-at-home services (n = 58) and hospice-at-home staff (n = 78). RESULTS: Post bereavement, 76.4% of carers thought that they had received as much help and support as they needed and most carers (75.8%) rated the help and support as excellent or outstanding. Of six final programme theories capturing key factors relevant to providing optimum services, those directly relevant to carer experiences were: integration and co-ordination of services; knowledge, skills and ethos of hospice staff; volunteer roles; support directed at the patient-carer dyad. CONCLUSIONS: Carers in hospice-at-home services identified care to be of a higher quality than generic community services. Hospice staff were perceived as having 'time to care', communicated well and were comfortable with dying and death. Hands-on care was particularly valued in the period close to death.

Attitudes and Experiences Surrounding Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in the United States: A Scoping Review.

To identify research and gaps in literature about FGM/C-related attitudes and experiences among individuals from FGM/C-practicing countries living in the United States, we conducted a scoping review guided by Arksey and O'Malley's framework. We searched Medline (OVID), Embase (OVID), PubMed, and SCOPUS and conducted a grey literature search for studies assessing attitudes or experiences related to FGM/C with data collected directly from individuals from FGM/C-practicing countries living in the United States. The search yielded 417 studies, and 40 met the inclusion criteria. Findings suggest that women and men from FGM/C-practicing countries living in the United States generally oppose FGM/C, and that women with FGM/C have significant physical and mental health needs and have found US healthcare providers to lack understanding of FGM/C. Future research can improve measurement of FGM/C by taking into account the sociocultural influences on FGM/C-related attitudes and experiences.

Information tools for care coordination in patient handover: Is an electronic medical record enough to support nurses?

BACKGROUND: Effectiveness of end-of-shift patient handover between nurses may be impacted by poor communication. This can be improved with the use of information tools, either electronic or paper-based. Few studies have investigated the activities that support patient handover, and fewer have explored how several of these tools used together affects the handover process. PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to understand coordination challenges in end-of-shift patient handover between nurses and the influence of multiple information tools used in that context. METHODOLOGY: A qualitative methodology to investigate phenomena in an acute care hospital in the United States was used in this study. Semistructured interviews were used to elicit insights from 16 nurses. Data were analyzed by coding three types of task dependencies (prerequisite, simultaneous, and shared) and three information tools (electronic medical records [EMRs], Kardex, and printouts of EMR data). RESULTS: In preparation for a handover, nurses were burdened by ensuring that information in the EMR was correct and complete. A one-sheet Kardex was the tool nurses in the study preferred, because the essential information was at hand and it provided structure to the communication. Printouts of EMR data were often physically cumbersome and not useful in their current form, although they may be useful for communicating anomalous data. CONCLUSION: This study provides insights regarding the challenges of care coordination in end-of-shift patient handover between nurses and the usages of a variety of information tools in preparation for handover, as well as the actual handover process. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Multiple interrelated information tools may be used to support patient handover. Health leaders should focus efforts on further advancing protocols for end-of-shift nurse handovers. Health system designers should design information tools to align them with their defined purpose in the handover process. Future work should consider both the information needs of nurses and the goal of improving nurse workflows.

Evaluating Differences in Whole Blood, Serum, and Urine Screening Tests for Zika Virus, Puerto Rico, USA, 2016.

We evaluated nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) for Zika virus on whole-blood specimens compared with NAAT on serum and urine specimens among asymptomatic pregnant women during the 2015-2016 Puerto Rico Zika outbreak. Using NAAT, more infections were detected in serum and urine than in whole blood specimens.

Hospice at Home services in England: a national survey.

OBJECTIVE: Hospice at Home (HAH) services aim to enable patients to be cared for and die at home, if that is their choice and achieve a 'good death'. A national survey, in 2017, aimed to describe and compare the features of HAH services and understand key enablers to service provision. METHODS: Service managers of adult HAH services in the 'Hospice UK' and National Association for Hospice at Home directories within England were invited to participate. Information on service configuration, referral, staffing, finance, care provision and enablers to service provision were collected by telephone interview. RESULTS: Of 128 services invited, 70 (54.7%) provided data. Great diversity was found. Most services operated in mixed urban/rural (74.3%) and mixed deprivation (77.1%) areas and provided hands-on care (97.1%), symptom assessment and management (91.4%), psychosocial support (94.3%) and respite care (74.3%). Rapid response (within 4 hours) was available in 65.7%; hands-on care 24 hours a day in 52.2%. Charity donations were the main source of funding for 71.2%. Key enablers for service provision included working with local services (eg, district nursing, general practitioner services), integrated health records, funding and anticipatory care planning. Access to timely medication and equipment was critical. CONCLUSION: There is considerable variation in HAH services in England. Due to this variation it was not possible to categorise services into delivery types. Services work to supplement local care using a flexible approach benefitting from integration and funding. Further work defining service features related to patient and/or carer outcomes would support future service development.

Impact of the Saving Mothers, Giving Life Approach on Decreasing Maternal and Perinatal Deaths in Uganda and Zambia.

BACKGROUND: Maternal and perinatal mortality is a global development priority that continues to present major challenges in sub-Saharan Africa. Saving Mothers, Giving Life (SMGL) was a multipartner initiative implemented from 2012 to 2017 with the goal of improving maternal and perinatal health in high-mortality settings. The initiative accomplished this by reducing delays to timely and appropriate obstetric care through the introduction and support of community and facility evidence-based and district-wide health systems strengthening interventions. METHODS: SMGL-designated pilot districts in Uganda and Zambia documented baseline and endline maternal and perinatal health outcomes using multiple approaches. These included health facility assessments, pregnancy outcome monitoring, enhanced maternal mortality detection in facilities, and district population-based identification and investigation of maternal deaths in communities. RESULTS: Over the course of the 5-year SMGL initiative, population-based estimates documented a 44% reduction in the SMGL-supported district-wide maternal mortality ratio (MMR) in Uganda (from 452 to 255 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births) and a 41% reduction in Zambia (from 480 to 284 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births). The MMR in SMGL-supported health facilities declined by 44% in Uganda and by 38% in Zambia. The institutional delivery rate increased by 47% in Uganda (from 45.5% to 66.8% of district births) and by 44% in Zambia (from 62.6% to 90.2% of district births). The number of facilities providing emergency obstetric and newborn care (EmONC) rose from 10 to 26 in Uganda and from 7 to 13 in Zambia, and lower- and mid-level facilities increased the number of EmONC signal functions performed. Cesarean delivery rates increased by more than 70% in both countries, reaching 9% and 5% of all births in Uganda and Zambia districts, respectively. Maternal deaths in facilities due to obstetric hemorrhage declined by 42% in Uganda and 65% in Zambia. Overall, perinatal mortality rates declined, largely due to reductions in stillbirths in both countries; however, no statistically significant changes were found in predischarge neonatal death rates in predischarge either country. CONCLUSIONS: MMRs fell significantly in Uganda and Zambia following the introduction of the SMGL interventions, and SMGL's comprehensive district systems-strengthening approach successfully improved coverage and quality of care for mothers and newborns. The lessons learned from the initiative can inform policy makers and program managers in other low- and middle-income settings where similar approaches could be used to rapidly reduce preventable maternal and newborn deaths.

Addressing the First Delay in Saving Mothers, Giving Life Districts in Uganda and Zambia: Approaches and Results for Increasing Demand for Facility Delivery Services.

Saving Mothers, Giving Life (SMGL), a 5-year initiative implemented in selected districts in Uganda and Zambia, was designed to reduce deaths related to pregnancy and childbirth by targeting the 3 delays to receiving appropriate care at birth. While originally the "Three Delays" model was designed to focus on curative services that encompass emergency obstetric care, SMGL expanded its application to primary and secondary prevention of obstetric complications. Prevention of the "first delay" focused on addressing factors influencing the decision to seek delivery care at a health facility. Numerous factors can contribute to the first delay, including a lack of birth planning, unfamiliarity with pregnancy danger signs, poor perceptions of facility care, and financial or geographic barriers. SMGL addressed these barriers through community engagement on safe motherhood, public health outreach, community workers who identified pregnant women and encouraged facility delivery, and incentives to deliver in a health facility. SMGL used qualitative and quantitative methods to describe intervention strategies, intervention outcomes, and health impacts. Partner reports, health facility assessments (HFAs), facility and community surveillance, and population-based mortality studies were used to document activities and measure health outcomes in SMGL-supported districts. SMGL's approach led to unprecedented community outreach on safe motherhood issues in SMGL districts. About 3,800 community health care workers in Uganda and 1,558 in Zambia were engaged. HFAs indicated that facility deliveries rose significantly in SMGL districts. In Uganda, the proportion of births that took place in facilities rose from 45.5% to 66.8% (47% increase); similarly, in Zambia SMGL districts, facility deliveries increased from 62.6% to 90.2% (44% increase). In both countries, the proportion of women delivering in facilities equipped to provide emergency obstetric and newborn care also increased (from 28.2% to 41.0% in Uganda and from 26.0% to 29.1% in Zambia). The districts documented declines in the number of maternal deaths due to not accessing facility care during pregnancy, delivery, and the postpartum period in both countries. This reduction played a significant role in the decline of the maternal mortality ratio in SMGL-supported districts in Uganda but not in Zambia. Further work is needed to sustain gains and to eliminate preventable maternal and perinatal deaths.

Addressing the Third Delay in Saving Mothers, Giving Life Districts in Uganda and Zambia: Ensuring Adequate and Appropriate Facility-Based Maternal and Perinatal Health Care.

BACKGROUND: Saving Mothers, Giving Life (SMGL) is a 5-year initiative implemented in participating districts in Uganda and Zambia that aimed to reduce deaths related to pregnancy and childbirth by targeting the 3 delays to receiving appropriate care: seeking, reaching, and receiving. Approaches to addressing the third delay included adequate health facility infrastructure, specifically sufficient equipment and medications; trained providers to provide quality evidence-based care; support for referrals to higher-level care; and effective maternal and perinatal death surveillance and response. METHODS: SMGL used a mixed-methods approach to describe intervention strategies, outcomes, and health impacts. Programmatic and monitoring and evaluation data-health facility assessments, facility and community surveillance, and population-based mortality studies-were used to document the effectiveness of intervention components. RESULTS: During the SMGL initiative, the proportion of facilities providing emergency obstetric and newborn care (EmONC) increased from 10% to 25% in Uganda and from 6% to 12% in Zambia. Correspondingly, the delivery rate occurring in EmONC facilities increased from 28.2% to 41.0% in Uganda and from 26.0% to 29.1% in Zambia. Nearly all facilities had at least one trained provider on staff by the endline evaluation. Staffing increases allowed a higher proportion of health centers to provide care 24 hours a day/7 days a week by endline-from 74.6% to 82.9% in Uganda and from 64.8% to 95.5% in Zambia. During this period, referral communication improved from 93.3% to 99.0% in Uganda and from 44.6% to 100% in Zambia, and data systems to identify and analyze causes of maternal and perinatal deaths were established and strengthened. CONCLUSION: SMGL's approach was associated with improvements in facility infrastructure, equipment, medication, access to skilled staff, and referral mechanisms and led to declines in facility maternal and perinatal mortality rates. Further work is needed to sustain these gains and to eliminate preventable maternal and perinatal deaths.

Did Saving Mothers, Giving Life Expand Timely Access to Lifesaving Care in Uganda? A Spatial District-Level Analysis of Travel Time to Emergency Obstetric and Newborn Care.

INTRODUCTION: Interventions for the Saving Mothers, Giving Life (SMGL) initiative aimed to ensure all pregnant women in SMGL-supported districts have timely access to emergency obstetric and newborn care (EmONC). Spatial travel-time analyses provide a visualization of changes in timely access. METHODS: We compared travel-time estimates to EmONC health facilities in SMGL-supported districts in western Uganda in 2012, 2013, and 2016. To examine EmONC access, we analyzed a categorical variable of travel-time duration in 30-minute increments. Data sources included health facility assessments, geographic coordinates of EmONC facilities, geolocated population estimates of women of reproductive age (WRA), and other road network and geographic sources. RESULTS: The number of EmONC facilities almost tripled between 2012 and 2016, increasing geographic access to EmONC. Estimated travel time to EmONC facilities declined significantly during the 5-year period. The proportion of WRA able to access any EmONC and comprehensive EmONC (CEmONC) facility within 2 hours by motorcycle increased by 18% (from 61.3% to 72.1%, P < .01) and 37% (from 51.1% to 69.8%, P < .01), respectively from baseline to 2016. Similar increases occurred among WRA accessing EmONC and CEmONC respectively if 4-wheeled vehicles (14% and 31% increase, P < .01) could be used. Increases in timely access were also substantial for nonmotorized transportation such as walking and/or bicycling. CONCLUSIONS: Largely due to the SMGL-supported expansion of EmONC capability, timely access to EmONC significantly improved. Our analysis developed a geographic outline of facility accessibility using multiple types of transportation. Spatial travel-time analyses, along with other EmONC indicators, can be used by planners and policy makers to estimate need and target underserved populations to achieve further gains in EmONC accessibility. In addition to increasing the number and geographic distribution of EmONC facilities, complementary efforts to make motorized transportation available are necessary to achieve meaningful increases in EmONC access.

Bile acids and their respective conjugates elicit different responses in neonatal cardiomyocytes: role of Gi protein, muscarinic receptors and TGR5.

Bile acids are recognised as bioactive signalling molecules. While they are known to influence arrhythmia susceptibility in cholestasis, there is limited knowledge about the underlying mechanisms. To delineate mechanisms underlying fetal heart rhythm disturbances in cholestatic pregnancy, we used FRET microscopy to monitor cAMP release and contraction measurements in isolated rodent neonatal cardiomyocytes. The unconjugated bile acids CDCA, DCA and UDCA and, to a lesser extent, CA were found to be relatively potent agonists for the GPBAR1 (TGR5) receptor and elicit cAMP release, whereas all glyco- and tauro- conjugated bile acids are weak agonists. The bile acid-induced cAMP production does not lead to an increase in contraction rate, and seems to be mediated by the RI isoform of adenylate cyclase, unlike adrenaline-dependent release which is mediated by the RII isoform. In contrast, bile acids elicited slowing of neonatal cardiomyocyte contraction indicating that other signalling pathways are involved. The conjugated bile acids were found to be partial agonists of the muscarinic M2, but not sphingosin-1-phosphate-2, receptors, and act partially through the Gi pathway. Furthermore, the contraction slowing effect of unconjugated bile acids may also relate to cytotoxicity at higher concentrations.

Pregnancy Outcomes After Maternal Zika Virus Infection During Pregnancy - U.S. Territories, January 1, 2016-April 25, 2017.

Pregnant women living in or traveling to areas with local mosquito-borne Zika virus transmission are at risk for Zika virus infection, which can lead to severe fetal and infant brain abnormalities and microcephaly (1). In February 2016, CDC recommended 1) routine testing for Zika virus infection of asymptomatic pregnant women living in areas with ongoing local Zika virus transmission at the first prenatal care visit, 2) retesting during the second trimester for women who initially test negative, and 3) testing of pregnant women with signs or symptoms consistent with Zika virus disease (e.g., fever, rash, arthralgia, or conjunctivitis) at any time during pregnancy (2). To collect information about pregnant women with laboratory evidence of recent possible Zika virus infection* and outcomes in their fetuses and infants, CDC established pregnancy and infant registries (3). During January 1, 2016-April 25, 2017, U.S. territories† with local transmission of Zika virus reported 2,549 completed pregnancies§ (live births and pregnancy losses at any gestational age) with laboratory evidence of recent possible Zika virus infection; 5% of fetuses or infants resulting from these pregnancies had birth defects potentially associated with Zika virus infection¶ (4,5). Among completed pregnancies with positive nucleic acid tests confirming Zika infection identified in the first, second, and third trimesters, the percentage of fetuses or infants with possible Zika-associated birth defects was 8%, 5%, and 4%, respectively. Among liveborn infants, 59% had Zika laboratory testing results reported to the pregnancy and infant registries. Identification and follow-up of infants born to women with laboratory evidence of recent possible Zika virus infection during pregnancy permits timely and appropriate clinical intervention services (6).

Pregnant Women's Intentions and Subsequent Behaviors Regarding Maternal and Neonatal Service Utilization: Results from a Cohort Study in Nyanza Province, Kenya.

Higher use of maternal and neonatal health (MNH) services may reduce maternal and neonatal mortality in Kenya. This study aims to: 1) prospectively explore women's intentions to use MNH services (antenatal care, delivery in a facility, postnatal care, neonatal care) at <20 and 30-35 weeks' gestation and their actual use of these services; 2) identify predictors of intention-behavior discordance among women with positive service use intentions; 3) examine associations between place of delivery, women's reasons for choosing it, and birthing experiences. We used data from a 2012-2013 population-based cohort of pregnant women in the Demographic Surveillance Site in Nyanza province, Kenya. Of 1,056 women completing the study (89.1% response rate), 948 had live-births and 22 stillbirths, and they represent our analytic sample. Logistic regression analysis identified predictors of intention-behavior discordance regarding delivery in a facility and use of postnatal and neonatal care. At <20 and 30-35 weeks' gestation, most women intended to seek MNH services (≥93.9% and ≥87.5%, respectively, for all services assessed). Actual service use was high for antenatal (98.1%) and neonatal (88.5%) care, but lower for delivery in a facility (76.9%) and postnatal care (51.8%). Woman's age >35 and high-school education were significant predictors of intention-behavior discordance regarding delivery in a facility; several delivery-related factors were significantly associated with intention-behavior discordance regarding use of postnatal and neonatal care. Delivery facilities were chosen based on proximity to women's residence, affordability, and service quality; among women who delivered outside a health facility, 16.3% could not afford going to a facility. Good/very good birth experiences were reported by 93.6% of women who delivered in a facility and 32.6% of women who did not. We found higher MNH service utilization than previously documented in Nyanza province. Further increasing the number of facility deliveries and use of postnatal care may improve MNH in Kenya.

Exploring the associations between intimate partner violence and women's mental health: evidence from a population-based study in Paraguay.

Using a nationally representative sample from the 2008 Paraguayan National Survey of Demography and Sexual and Reproductive Health, we examine the association between emotional, physical, and sexual intimate partner violence (IPV) and mental health among women aged 15-44 years who have ever been married or in a consensual union. The results from multivariate logistic regression models demonstrate that controlling for women's socioeconomic and marital status and history of childhood abuse and their male partners' unemployment and alcohol consumption, IPV is independently associated with an increased risk for common mental disorders (CMD) and suicidal ideation measured by the Self Reporting Questionnaire (SRQ-20). IPV variables substantially improve the explanatory power of the models, particularly for suicidal ideation. Emotional abuse, regardless of when it occurred, is associated with the greatest increased risk for CMD whereas recent physical abuse is associated with the greatest increased risk for suicidal ideation. These findings suggest that efforts to identify women with mental health problems, particularly suicidal ideation, should include screening for the types and history of IPV victimization.

Physical violence against U.S. women around the time of pregnancy, 2004-2007.

BACKGROUND: Previous research shows that the prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) around the time of pregnancy varies from 4% to 9%, but no studies have distinguished between abuse rates by former versus current partners. PURPOSE: This study aims to estimate the prevalence of IPV among U.S. women shortly before and during pregnancy and to compare the rates and predictors of abuse perpetrated by current partners with the rates and predictors of abuse perpetrated by former partners. METHODS: Using data from 27 states and New York City, the prevalence of physical abuse by current and former intimate male partners was estimated among 134,955 women who delivered a singleton, full-term infant in 2004-2007. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine the demographic, pregnancy-related, and stress factors that predicted the risk of IPV. RESULTS: Prevalence of IPV from either a former or current partner was 5.3% before and 3.6% during pregnancy. Prevalence of abuse by a former partner was consistently higher than the prevalence of abuse by a current partner. The three strongest predictors of IPV during pregnancy were the woman's partner not wanting the pregnancy (current: AOR=3.47, 95% CI=3.13, 3.85; former: AOR=3.22, 95% CI=2.90, 3.76); having had a recent divorce or separation (current: AOR=3.23, 95% CI=2.92, 3.58; former: AOR=3.54, 95% CI=3.20, 3.91); and being close to someone having a drug or alcohol problem (current: AOR=3.05, 95% CI=2.78, 3.36; former: AOR=2.97, 95% CI=2.70, 3.27). Maternal characteristics (age, education, race, marital status, woman did not want the pregnancy) were less important predictors. CONCLUSIONS: Assessments of abuse should ask specifically about actions by both current and ex-partners.

Dimensions of child punishment in two Central American countries: Guatemala and El Salvador.

OBJECTIVE: Severe physical punishment of children is an important issue in international child health and welfare. This study examines such punishment in Guatemala and El Salvador. METHODS: Data came from nationally representative surveys of women aged 15-49 and men aged 15-59 residing in Guatemala (2002) and El Salvador (2002-2003). The surveys included questions about punishment experienced during childhood, with response options ranging from verbal scolding to beating. In Guatemala, parents were asked how they disciplined their children; questions allowed them to compare how they were punished in their childhood with how they punished their own children. Bivariate and multivariate analyses are presented. RESULTS: In Guatemala, 35% of women and 46% of men reported being beaten as punishment in childhood; in El Salvador, the figures were 42% and 62%, respectively. In both countries, older participants were relatively more likely than younger participants to have been beaten as children. Witnessing familial violence was associated with an increased risk of being beaten in childhood. In Guatemala, having experienced physical punishment as a child increased the chance that parents would use physical punishment on their own children. Multivariate analyses revealed that women who were beaten in childhood were significantly more likely in both countries to be in a violent relationship. CONCLUSIONS: The use of beating to physically punish children is a common problem in Guatemala and El Salvador, with generational and intergenerational effects. Its negative and lingering effects necessitate the introduction of policies and programs to decrease this behavior.

Dimensions of child sexual abuse before age 15 in three Central American countries: Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala.

OBJECTIVE: The prevalence of sexual abuse during childhood or adolescence varies depending on the definitions and age categories used. This study examines the first national, population-based data available on child sexual abuse that occurs before age 15 in three countries: El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. This study uses comparable indicators and measures of sexual abuse for the three countries to document the prevalence of abuse, types of perpetrators, and the association of child sexual abuse with recent intimate partner violence. METHODS: Child sexual abuse was defined as sexual abuse that first occurs before age 15. Nationally representative data from El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras were used. In El Salvador, separate questions on forced intercourse and non-penetrative sexual abuse were asked. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed using STATA Version 8SE. RESULTS: The prevalence of child sexual abuse varied from 7.8% in Honduras to 6.4% in El Salvador and 4.7% in Guatemala. In all three countries, the overwhelming majority of women who reported child sexual abuse first experienced the abuse before age 11. Perpetrators tended to be a family member, a neighbor, or an acquaintance. Bivariate and multivariate analyses indicated that women who experienced child sexual abuse in Guatemala and Honduras were about two times more likely to be in violent relationships as women who did not experience abuse. This relationship was not significant in multivariate analyses for El Salvador where the prevalence of intimate partner violence was the lowest. CONCLUSIONS: Child sexual abuse in Central America is clearly a problem with the prevalence between 5% and 8%. Child sexual abuse can have long-term negative health impacts including exposure to intimate partner violence in adulthood. Programs to prevent abuse and treat victims of child sexual abuse are needed in Central America.

Dimensions of child punishment in two Central American countries: Guatemala and El Salvador / Dimensiones del castigo infantil en dos países de América Central: Guatemala y El Salvador

OBJECTIVE: Severe physical punishment of children is an important issue in international child health and welfare. This study examines such punishment in Guatemala and El Salvador. METHODS: Data came from nationally representative surveys of women aged 15-49 and men aged 15-59 residing in Guatemala (2002) and El Salvador (2002-2003). The surveys included questions about punishment experienced during childhood, with response options ranging from verbal scolding to beating. In Guatemala, parents were asked how they disciplined their children; questions allowed them to compare how they were punished in their childhood with how they punished their own children. Bivariate and multivariate analyses are presented. RESULTS: In Guatemala, 35 percent of women and 46 percent of men reported being beaten as punishment in childhood; in El Salvador, the figures were 42 percent and 62 percent, respectively. In both countries, older participants were relatively more likely than younger participants to have been beaten as children. Witnessing familial violence was associated with an increased risk of being beaten in childhood. In Guatemala, having experienced physical punishment as a child increased the chance that parents would use physical punishment on their own children. Multivariate analyses revealed that women who were beaten in childhood were significantly more likely in both countries to be in a violent relationship. CONCLUSIONS: The use of beating to physically punish children is a common problem in Guatemala and El Salvador, with generational and intergenerational effects. Its negative and lingering effects necessitate the introduction of policies and programs to decrease this behavior.

OBJETIVOS: El castigo físico severo de niños es un tema importante de la salud y el bienestar infantil en el mundo. En el presente estudio se analiza este tipo de castigo en Guatemala y El Salvador. MÉTODOS: Se tomaron los datos de encuestas representativas nacionales realizadas a mujeres de 14 a 59 años y hombres de 15 a 59 años que residían en Guatemala (2002) y El Salvador (2002-2003). Las encuestas contenían preguntas sobre los castigos que sufrieron en su niñez, con posibilidades de respuesta que iban desde regaños verbales hasta golpizas. En Guatemala se preguntó a los padres cómo disciplinaban a sus hijos; las preguntas les permitían comparar cómo ellos eran castigados en su niñez y cómo ellos castigaban a sus hijos. Se presentan los resultados de los análisis bifactorial y multifactorial. RESULTADOS: En Guatemala, 35 por ciento de las mujeres y 46 por ciento de los hombres informaron haber sido golpeados como castigo durante su niñez; en El Salvador, las cifras fueron 42 por ciento y 62 por ciento, respectivamente. En ambos países, los encuestados más viejos tenían una mayor probabilidad de haber sido golpeados en su niñez que los encuestados más jóvenes. Haber presenciado violencia familiar se asoció con un incremento en el riesgo de recibir golpizas durante la niñez. En Guatemala, haber recibido castigos físicos durante la niñez aumentó la probabilidad de que como padres aplicaran castigos físicos a sus hijos. El análisis multifactorial reveló que las mujeres de ambos países golpeadas durante su niñez tenían significativamente más probabilidades de encontrarse en una relación violenta. CONCLUSIONES: El uso de golpes para castigar físicamente a niños es un problema frecuente en Guatemala y El Salvador, con efectos generacionales e intergeneracionales. Sus efectos prolongados y negativos requieren de la aplicación de políticas y programas que permitan reducir este comportamiento.

Glutamate release from activated microglia requires the oxidative burst and lipid peroxidation.

When activated by proinflammatory stimuli, microglia release substantial levels of glutamate, and mounting evidence suggests this contributes to neuronal damage during neuroinflammation. Prior studies indicated a role for the Xc exchange system, an amino acid transporter that antiports glutamate for cystine. Because cystine is used for synthesis of glutathione (GSH) synthesis, we hypothesized that glutamate release is an indirect consequence of GSH depletion by the respiratory burst, which produces superoxide from NADPH oxidase. Microglial glutamate release triggered by lipopolysaccharide was blocked by diphenylene iodonium chloride and apocynin, inhibitors of NADPH oxidase. This glutamate release was also blocked by vitamin E and elicited by lipid peroxidation products 4-hydroxynonenal and acrolein, suggesting that lipid peroxidation makes crucial demands on GSH. Although NADPH oxidase inhibitors also suppressed nitrite accumulation, vitamin E did not; moreover, glutamate release was largely unaffected by nitric oxide donors, inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase, or changes in gene expression. These findings indicate that a considerable degree of the neurodegenerative consequences of neuroinflammation may result from conversion of oxidative stress to excitotoxic stress. This phenomenon entails a biochemical chain of events initiated by a programmed oxidative stress and resultant mass-action amino acid transport. Indeed, some of the neuroprotective effects of antioxidants may be due to interference with these events rather than direct protection against neuronal oxidation.

The JNK, ERK and p53 pathways play distinct roles in apoptosis mediated by the antitumor agents vinblastine, doxorubicin, and etoposide.

Assessment of specific apoptosis and survival pathways implicated in anticancer drug action is important for understanding drug mechanisms and modes of resistance in order to improve the benefits of chemotherapy. In order to better examine the role of mitogen-activated protein kinases, including JNK and ERK, as well as the tumor suppressor p53, in the response of tumor cells to chemotherapy, we compared the effects on these pathways of three structurally and functionally distinct antitumor agents. Drug concentrations equal to 50 times the concentration required to reduce cell proliferation by 50% were used. Vinblastine, doxorubicin, or etoposide (VP-16) induced apoptotic cell death in KB-3 carcinoma cells, with similar kinetic profiles of PARP cleavage, caspase 3 activation, and mitochondrial cytochrome c release. All three drugs strongly activated JNK, but only vinblastine induced c-Jun phosphorylation and AP-1 activation. Inhibition of JNK by SP600125 protected cells from drug-induced cytotoxicity. Vinblastine caused inactivation of ERK whereas ERK was unaffected in cells exposed to doxorubicin or VP-16. Inhibition of ERK signaling by the MEK inhibitor, U0126, potentiated the cytotoxic effects of vinblastine and doxorubicin, but not that of VP-16. Vinblastine induced p53 downregulation, and chemical inhibition of p53 potentiated vinblastine-induced cell death, suggesting a protective effect of p53. In contrast, doxorubicin and VP-16 induced p53, and inhibition of p53 decreased drug-induced cell death, suggesting a pro-apoptotic role for p53. These results highlight the differential roles played by several key signal transduction pathways in the mechanisms of action of key antitumor agents, and suggest ways to specifically potentiate their effects in a context-dependent manner. In addition, the novel finding that JNK activation can occur without c-Jun phosphorylation or AP-1 activation has important implications for our understanding of JNK function.