Structural constraints of pyocin S2 import through the ferripyoverdine receptor FpvAI.

TonB-dependent transporters (TBDTs) mediate energized transport of essential nutrients into gram-negative bacteria. TBDTs are increasingly being exploited for the delivery of antibiotics to drug-resistant bacteria. While much is known about ground state complexes of TBDTs, few details have emerged about the transport process itself. In this study, we exploit bacteriocin parasitization of a TBDT to probe the mechanics of transport. Previous work has shown that the N-terminal domain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa-specific bacteriocin pyocin S2 (PyoS2NTD) is imported through the pyoverdine receptor FpvAI. PyoS2NTD transport follows the opening of a proton-motive force-dependent pore through FpvAI and the delivery of its own TonB box that engages TonB. We use molecular models and simulations to formulate a complete translocation pathway for PyoS2NTD that we validate using protein engineering and cytotoxicity measurements. We show that following partial removal of the FpvAI plug domain which occludes the channel, the pyocin's N-terminus enters the channel by electrostatic steering and ratchets to the periplasm. Application of force, mimicking that exerted by TonB, leads to unraveling of PyoS2NTD as it squeezes through the channel. Remarkably, while some parts of PyoS2NTD must unfold, complete unfolding is not required for transport, a result we confirmed by disulfide bond engineering. Moreover, the section of the FpvAI plug that remains embedded in the channel appears to serve as a buttress against which PyoS2NTD is pushed to destabilize the domain. Our study reveals the limits of structural deformation that accompanies import through a TBDT and the role the TBDT itself plays in accommodating transport.

Directional Porin Binding of Intrinsically Disordered Protein Sequences Promotes Colicin Epitope Display in the Bacterial Periplasm.

Protein bacteriocins are potent narrow spectrum antibiotics that exploit outer membrane porins to kill bacteria by poorly understood mechanisms. Here, we determine how colicins, bacteriocins specific for Escherichia coli, engage the trimeric porin OmpF to initiate toxin entry. The N-terminal ∼80 residues of the nuclease colicin ColE9 are intrinsically unstructured and house two OmpF binding sites (OBS1 and OBS2) that reside within the pores of OmpF and which flank an epitope that binds periplasmic TolB. Using a combination of molecular dynamics simulations, chemical trimerization, isothermal titration calorimetry, fluorescence microscopy, and single channel recording planar lipid bilayer measurements, we show that this arrangement is achieved by OBS2 binding from the extracellular face of OmpF, while the interaction of OBS1 occurs from the periplasmic face of OmpF. Our study shows how the narrow pores of oligomeric porins are exploited by colicin disordered regions for direction-specific binding, which ensures the constrained presentation of an activating signal within the bacterial periplasm.

Exploitation of an iron transporter for bacterial protein antibiotic import.

Unlike their descendants, mitochondria and plastids, bacteria do not have dedicated protein import systems. However, paradoxically, import of protein bacteriocins, the mechanisms of which are poorly understood, underpins competition among pathogenic and commensal bacteria alike. Here, using X-ray crystallography, isothermal titration calorimetry, confocal fluorescence microscopy, and in vivo photoactivatable cross-linking of stalled translocation intermediates, we demonstrate how the iron transporter FpvAI in the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa is hijacked to translocate the bacteriocin pyocin S2 (pyoS2) across the outer membrane (OM). FpvAI is a TonB-dependent transporter (TBDT) that actively imports the small siderophore ferripyoverdine (Fe-Pvd) by coupling to the proton motive force (PMF) via the inner membrane (IM) protein TonB1. The crystal structure of the N-terminal domain of pyoS2 (pyoS2NTD) bound to FpvAI (Kd = 240 pM) reveals that the pyocin mimics Fe-Pvd, inducing the same conformational changes in the receptor. Mimicry leads to fluorescently labeled pyoS2NTD being imported into FpvAI-expressing P. aeruginosa cells by a process analogous to that used by bona fide TBDT ligands. PyoS2NTD induces unfolding by TonB1 of a force-labile portion of the plug domain that normally occludes the central channel of FpvAI. The pyocin is then dragged through this narrow channel following delivery of its own TonB1-binding epitope to the periplasm. Hence, energized nutrient transporters in bacteria also serve as rudimentary protein import systems, which, in the case of FpvAI, results in a protein antibiotic 60-fold bigger than the transporter's natural substrate being translocated across the OM.

VEGF regulates local inhibitory complement proteins in the eye and kidney.

Outer retinal and renal glomerular functions rely on specialized vasculature maintained by VEGF that is produced by neighboring epithelial cells, the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and podocytes, respectively. Dysregulation of RPE- and podocyte-derived VEGF is associated with neovascularization in wet age-related macular degeneration (ARMD), choriocapillaris degeneration, and glomerular thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA). Since complement activation and genetic variants in inhibitory complement factor H (CFH) are also features of both ARMD and TMA, we hypothesized that VEGF and CFH interact. Here, we demonstrated that VEGF inhibition decreases local CFH and other complement regulators in the eye and kidney through reduced VEGFR2/PKC-α/CREB signaling. Patient podocytes and RPE cells carrying disease-associated CFH genetic variants had more alternative complement pathway deposits than controls. These deposits were increased by VEGF antagonism, a common wet ARMD treatment, suggesting that VEGF inhibition could reduce cellular complement regulatory capacity. VEGF antagonism also increased markers of endothelial cell activation, which was partially reduced by genetic complement inhibition. Together, these results suggest that VEGF protects the retinal and glomerular microvasculature, not only through VEGFR2-mediated vasculotrophism, but also through modulation of local complement proteins that could protect against complement-mediated damage. Though further study is warranted, these findings could be relevant for patients receiving VEGF antagonists.