Myeloid differentiation factor-2/LY96, a potential predictive biomarker of metastasis and poor outcomes in prostate cancer: clinical implications as a potential therapeutic target.

Prostate cancer (CaP) is the most diagnosed cancer in males and the second leading cause of cancer deaths. Patients with localized tumors are generally curable. However, no curative treatment exists for patients with advanced and metastatic disease. Therefore, identifying critical proteins involved in the metastatic process would help to develop new therapeutic options for patients with advanced and aggressive CaP. We provide strong evidence that Myeloid differentiation factor-2 (MD2) plays a critical role in metastasis and CaP progression. Analysis of tumor genomic data showed that amplifications of MD2 and increased expression are associated with poor outcomes in patients. Immunohistochemistry analysis of tumor tissues showed a correlation between the expression of MD2 and cancer progression. The Decipher-genomic test validated the potential of MD2 in predicting metastasis. In vitro studies demonstrated that MD2 confers invasiveness by activating MAPK and NF-kB signaling pathways and inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Furthermore, we show that metastatic cells release MD2 (sMD2). We measured serum-sMD2 in patients and found that the level is correlated to disease extent. We determined the significance of MD2 in metastasis in vivo and as a therapeutic target, showing that the molecular and pharmacological targeting of MD2 significantly inhibited metastasis in murine models. We conclude that MD2 predicts metastatic behavior, and serum-MD2 could be studied as a potential non-invasive biomarker for metastasis, whereas MD2 presence on prostate biopsy predicts adverse disease outcome. We suggest MD2-targeted therapies could be developed as potential treatments for aggressive metastatic disease.

Cilia and Cancer: From Molecular Genetics to Therapeutic Strategies.

Cilia are microtubule-based organelles that project from the cell surface with motility or sensory functions. Primary cilia work as antennae to sense and transduce extracellular signals. Cilia critically control proliferation by mediating cell-extrinsic signals and by regulating cell cycle entry. Recent studies have shown that primary cilia and their associated proteins also function in autophagy and genome stability, which are important players in oncogenesis. Abnormal functions of primary cilia may contribute to oncogenesis. Indeed, defective cilia can either promote or suppress cancers, depending on the cancer-initiating mutation, and the presence or absence of primary cilia is associated with specific cancer types. Together, these findings suggest that primary cilia play important, but distinct roles in different cancer types, opening up a completely new avenue of research to understand the biology and treatment of cancers. In this review, we discuss the roles of primary cilia in promoting or inhibiting oncogenesis based on the known or predicted functions of cilia and cilia-associated proteins in several key processes and related clinical implications.

The Role of Gut Microbiome-Derived Short-Chain Fatty Acid Butyrate in Hepatobiliary Diseases.

The short-chain fatty acid butyrate, produced from fermentable carbohydrates by gut microbiota in the colon, has multiple beneficial effects on human health. At the intestinal level, butyrate regulates metabolism, helps in the transepithelial transport of fluids, inhibits inflammation, and induces the epithelial defense barrier. The liver receives a large amount of short-chain fatty acids via the blood flowing from the gut via the portal vein. Butyrate helps prevent nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, inflammation, cancer, and liver injuries. It ameliorates metabolic diseases, including insulin resistance and obesity, and plays a direct role in preventing fatty liver diseases. Butyrate has different mechanisms of action, including strong regulatory effects on the expression of many genes by inhibiting the histone deacetylases and modulating cellular metabolism. The present review highlights the wide range of beneficial therapeutic and unfavorable adverse effects of butyrate, with a high potential for clinically important uses in several liver diseases.

The NAMPT Inhibitor FK866 in Combination with Cisplatin Reduces Cholangiocarcinoma Cells Growth.

It is well established that Cholangiocarcioma (CCA) drug resistance plays a crucial role in the spread and survival of cancer cells. The major enzyme in the nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)-mediated pathways, nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), is essential for cancer cell survival and metastasis. Previous research has shown that the targeted NAMPT inhibitor FK866 reduces cancer cell viability and triggers cancer cell death; however, whether FK866 affects CCA cell survival has not been addressed before. We show herein that NAMPT is expressed in CCA cells, and FK866 suppresses the capacity of CCA cells to grow in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, by preventing NAMPT activity, FK866 significantly reduced the amount of NAD+ and adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) in HuCCT1, KMCH, and EGI cells. The present study's findings further show that FK866 causes changes in mitochondrial metabolism in CCA cells. Additionally, FK866 enhances the anticancer effects of cisplatin in vitro. Taken together, the results of the current study suggest that the NAMPT/NAD+ pathway may be a possible therapeutic target for CCA, and FK866 may be a useful medication targeting CCA in combination with cisplatin.

Hepatobiliary Cancers: Progress in Diagnosis, Pathogenesis, and Treatment.

Hepatobiliary cancers comprise a wide range of malignancies such as hepatocellular carcinoma and cholangiocarcinoma, and they are some of the most challenging to treat human neoplasms. Due to the rarity of the illnesses, the development of treatment measures for malignancies of the gastrointestinal system is far behind. The number of patients eligible for curative treatment is limited due to cancer's aggressive nature and the difficulties of early identification. Furthermore, surgery is frequently intrusive and linked with a significant level of risk. The therapy result of hepatobiliary cancers is unsatisfactory due to these complicated variables, leaving significant space for improvement.

Inhibition of triple­negative breast cancer proliferation and motility by reactivating p53 and inhibiting overactivated Akt.

Mutations of p53 tumor suppressors occur more frequently in cancers at advanced stages or in more malignant cancer subtypes such as triple­negative breast cancer. Thus, restoration of p53 tumor suppressor function constitutes a valuable cancer therapeutic strategy. In the present study, it was revealed that a specific inhibitor of histone deacetylase 6, ACY­1215, caused increased acetylation of p53 in breast cancer cells with mutated p53, which was accompanied by increased expression of p21. These results suggested that ACY­1215 may lead to enhanced transcriptional activity of p53. It was also determined that ACY­1215 treatment resulted in G1 cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in these cancer cells. Furthermore, ACY­1215 displayed a synergistic effect with specific inhibitors of ATM, an activator of Akt, in inducing cancer cell apoptosis and inhibiting their motility. More importantly, it was observed that combination of ACY­1215 and ATM inhibitors exhibited markedly more potent antitumor activity than the individual compound in xenograft mouse models of breast cancer with mutant p53. Collectively, our results demonstrated that ACY­1215 is a novel chemotherapeutic agent that could restore mutant p53 function in cancer cells with strong antitumor activity, either alone or in combination with inhibitors of the ATM protein kinase.

Histone Deacetylase Sirtuin 1 Promotes Loss of Primary Cilia in Cholangiocarcinoma.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) is a complex NAD+ -dependent protein deacetylase known to act as a tumor promoter or suppressor in different cancers. Here, we describe a mechanism of SIRT1-induced destabilization of primary cilia in cholangiocarcinoma (CCA). APPROACH AND RESULTS: A significant overexpression of SIRT1 was detected in human CCA specimens and CCA cells including HuCCT1, KMCH, and WITT1 as compared with normal cholangiocytes (H69 and NHC). Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated knockdown of SIRT1 in HuCCT1 cells induced cilia formation, whereas overexpression of SIRT1 in normal cholangiocytes suppressed ciliary expression. Activity of SIRT1 was regulated by presence of NAD+ in CCA cells. Inhibition of NAD -producing enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyl transferase increased ciliary length and frequency in CCA cells and in SIRT1-overexpressed H69 cells. Furthermore, we also noted that SIRT1 induces the proteasomal mediated degradation of ciliary proteins, including α-tubulin, ARL13B, and KIF3A. Moreover, overexpression of SIRT1 in H69 and NHC cells significantly induced cell proliferation and, conversely, SIRT1 inhibition in HuCCT1 and KMCH cells using siRNA or sirtinol reduced cell proliferation. In an orthotopic transplantation rat CCA model, the SIRT1 inhibitor sirtinol reduced tumor size and tumorigenic proteins (glioma-associated oncogene 1, phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase, and IL-6) expression. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, these results reveal the tumorigenic role of SIRT1 through modulation of primary cilia formation and provide the rationale for developing therapeutic approaches for CCA using SIRT1 as a target.

Short-Chain Fatty Acid Butyrate Induces Cilia Formation and Potentiates the Effects of HDAC6 Inhibitors in Cholangiocarcinoma Cells.

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a deadly form of liver cancer with limited therapeutic approaches. The pathogenesis of CCA involves the loss of primary cilia in cholangiocytes, an important organelle that regulates several key cellular functions including the regulation of cell polarity, growth, and differentiation, by a mechanism involving increased expression of deacetylases like HDAC6 and SIRT1. Therefore, cilia restoration may represent an alternative and novel therapeutic approach against CCA. Butyrate is produced by bacterial fermentation of fibers in the intestine and has been shown to inhibit SIRT1, showing antitumor effects on various cancers. Herein, we investigated the role of butyrate on CCA cell proliferation, migration, and EMT and evaluated the synergistic effects with specific HDAC6 inhibition. When CCA cells, including HuCCT1 and KMCH, were treated with butyrate, the cilia formation and acetylated-tubulin levels were increased, while no significant effects were observed in normal human cholangiocytes. Butyrate treatment also depicted reduced cell proliferation in HuCCT1 and KMCH cells, but on the other hand, it affected cell growth of the normal cholangiocytes only at high concentrations. In HuCCT1 cells, spheroid formation and cell migration were also halted by butyrate treatment. Furthermore, we found that butyrate augmented the previously described effects of HDAC6 inhibitors on CCA cell proliferation and migration by reducing the expression of CD44, cyclin D1, PCNA, Zeb1, and Vimentin. In summary, butyrate targets cancer cell growth and migration and enhances the anti-cancer effects of HDAC6 inhibitors in CCA cells, suggesting that butyrate may have therapeutic effects in CCA and other ciliopathies.

Synthetic Conjugates of Ursodeoxycholic Acid Inhibit Cystogenesis in Experimental Models of Polycystic Liver Disease.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Polycystic liver diseases (PLDs) are genetic disorders characterized by progressive development of symptomatic biliary cysts. Current surgical and pharmacological approaches are ineffective, and liver transplantation represents the only curative option. Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) and histone deacetylase 6 inhibitors (HDAC6is) have arisen as promising therapeutic strategies, but with partial benefits. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Here, we tested an approach based on the design, synthesis, and validation of a family of UDCA synthetic conjugates with selective HDAC6i capacity (UDCA-HDAC6i). Four UDCA-HDAC6i conjugates presented selective HDAC6i activity, UDCA-HDAC6i #1 being the most promising candidate. UDCA orientation within the UDCA-HDAC6i structure was determinant for HDAC6i activity and selectivity. Treatment of polycystic rats with UDCA-HDAC6i #1 reduced their hepatomegaly and cystogenesis, increased UDCA concentration, and inhibited HDAC6 activity in liver. In cystic cholangiocytes UDCA-HDAC6i #1 restored primary cilium length and exhibited potent antiproliferative activity. UDCA-HDAC6i #1 was actively transported into cells through BA and organic cation transporters. CONCLUSIONS: These UDCA-HDAC6i conjugates open a therapeutic avenue for PLDs.

Cholangiocarcinoma 2020: the next horizon in mechanisms and management.

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) includes a cluster of highly heterogeneous biliary malignant tumours that can arise at any point of the biliary tree. Their incidence is increasing globally, currently accounting for ~15% of all primary liver cancers and ~3% of gastrointestinal malignancies. The silent presentation of these tumours combined with their highly aggressive nature and refractoriness to chemotherapy contribute to their alarming mortality, representing ~2% of all cancer-related deaths worldwide yearly. The current diagnosis of CCA by non-invasive approaches is not accurate enough, and histological confirmation is necessary. Furthermore, the high heterogeneity of CCAs at the genomic, epigenetic and molecular levels severely compromises the efficacy of the available therapies. In the past decade, increasing efforts have been made to understand the complexity of these tumours and to develop new diagnostic tools and therapies that might help to improve patient outcomes. In this expert Consensus Statement, which is endorsed by the European Network for the Study of Cholangiocarcinoma, we aim to summarize and critically discuss the latest advances in CCA, mostly focusing on classification, cells of origin, genetic and epigenetic abnormalities, molecular alterations, biomarker discovery and treatments. Furthermore, the horizon of CCA for the next decade from 2020 onwards is highlighted.

Role of Glucose Metabolism Reprogramming in the Pathogenesis of Cholangiocarcinoma.

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is one of the most lethal cancers, and its rate of occurrence is increasing annually. The diagnoses of CCA patients remain elusive due to the lack of early symptoms and is misdiagnosed as HCC in a considerable percentage of patients. It is crucial to explore the underlying mechanisms of CCA carcinogenesis and development to find out specific biomarkers for early diagnosis of CCA and new promising therapeutic targets. In recent times, the reprogramming of tumor cells metabolism has been recognized as a hallmark of cancer. The modification from the oxidative phosphorylation metabolic pathway to the glycolysis pathway in CCA meets the demands of cancer cell proliferation and provides a favorable environment for tumor development. The alteration of metabolic programming in cancer cells is complex and may occur via mutations and epigenetic modifications within oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, signaling pathways, and glycolytic enzymes. Herein we review the altered metabolism in cancer and the signaling pathways involved in this phenomena as they may affect CCA development. Understanding the regulatory pathways of glucose metabolism such as Akt/mTOR, HIF1α, and cMyc in CCA may further develop our knowledge of this devastating disease and may offer relevant information in the exploration of new diagnostic biomarkers and targeted therapeutic approaches for CCA.

HDAC6-dependent ciliophagy is involved in ciliary loss and cholangiocarcinoma growth in human cells and murine models.

Reduced ciliary expression is reported in several tumors, including cholangiocarcinoma (CCA). We previously showed primary cilia have tumor suppressor characteristics, and HDAC6 is involved in ciliary loss. However, mechanisms of ciliary disassembly are unknown. Herein, we tested the hypothesis that HDAC6-dependent autophagy of primary cilia, i.e., ciliophagy, is the main mechanism driving ciliary disassembly in CCA. Using the cancer genome atlas database, human CCA cells, and a rat orthotopic CCA model, we assessed basal and HDAC6-regulated autophagy levels. The effects of RNA-silencing or pharmacological manipulations of ciliophagy on ciliary expression were assessed. Interactions of ciliary proteins with autophagy machinery was assessed by immunoprecipitations. Cell proliferation was assessed by MTS and IncuCyte. A CCA rat model was used to assess the effects of pharmacological inhibition of ciliophagy in vivo. Autophagy is increased in human CCA, as well as in a rat orthotopic CCA model and human CCA cell lines. Autophagic flux was decreased via inhibition of HDAC6, while it was increased by its overexpression. Inhibition of autophagy and HDAC6 restores cilia and decreases cell proliferation. LC3 interacts with HDAC6 and ciliary proteins, and the autophagy cargo receptor involved in targeting ciliary components to the autophagy machinery is primarily NBR1. Treatment with chloroquine, Ricolinostat (ACY-1215), or their combination decreased tumor growth in vivo. Mice that overexpress the autophagy transcription factor TFEB show a decrease of ciliary number. These results suggest that ciliary disassembly is mediated by HDAC6-regulated autophagy, i.e., ciliophagy. Inhibition of ciliophagy may decrease cholangiocarcinoma growth and warrant further investigations as a potential therapeutic approach.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This work identifies novel targets against primary ciliary disassembly that can lead to new cholangiocarcinoma therapeutic strategies. Furthermore, ciliary loss has been described in different tumors, increasing the significance of our research.

Role of Histone Deacetylases in Carcinogenesis: Potential Role in Cholangiocarcinoma.

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a highly invasive and metastatic form of carcinoma with bleak prognosis due to limited therapies, frequent relapse, and chemotherapy resistance. There is an urgent need to identify the molecular regulators of CCA in order to develop novel therapeutics and advance diseases diagnosis. Many cellular proteins including histones may undergo a series of enzyme-mediated post-translational modifications including acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation, sumoylation, and crotonylation. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) play an important role in regulating epigenetic maintenance and modifications of their targets, which in turn exert critical impacts on chromatin structure, gene expression, and stability of proteins. As such, HDACs constitute a group of potential therapeutic targets for CCA. The aim of this review was to summarize the role that HDACs perform in regulating epigenetic changes, tumor development, and their potential as therapeutic targets for CCA.

The primary cilium: Its role as a tumor suppressor organelle.

The primary cilium is an organelle that nearly all cells within the body contain. Its function is to sense the extracellular environment through its abundance of receptors and linked signaling pathways, working as an antenna. Ciliary defects lead to different pathologies. In particular, many tumors lose primary cilia, and this is linked with negative implications for the cell such as an increase in malignancy. In this work we will go through the knowledge of the role of primary cilia in normal conditions, how it is involved in diverse signaling pathways, and in disease, particularly in cancer, highlighting its tumor suppressor properties.

Characterization of Novel Murine and Human PDAC Cell Models: Identifying the Role of Intestine Specific Homeobox Gene ISX in Hypoxia and Disease Progression.

Therapy failure and metastasis-associated mortality are stumbling blocks in the management of PDAC in patients. Failure of therapy is associated to intense hypoxic conditions of tumors. To develop effective therapies, a complete understanding of hypoxia-associated changes in genetic landscape of tumors during disease progression is needed. Because artificially immortalized cell lines do not rightly represent the disease progression, studying genetics of tumors in spontaneous models is warranted. In the current study, we generated a spectrum of spontaneous human (UM-PDC1; UM-PDC2) and murine (HI-PanL, HI-PancI, HI-PanM) models representing localized, invasive, and metastatic PDAC from a patient and transgenic mice (K-rasG12D/Pdxcre/Ink4a/p16-/). These spontaneous models grow vigorously under hypoxia and exhibit activated K-ras signaling, progressive loss of PTEN, and tumorigenicity in vivo. Whereas UM-PDC1 form localized tumors, the UM-PDC2 metastasize to lungs in mice. In an order of progression, these models exhibit genomic instability marked by gross chromosomal rearrangements, centrosome-number variations, Aurora-kinase/H2AX colocalization, loss of primary cilia, and α-tubulin acetylation. The RNA sequencing of hypoxic models followed by qRT-PCR validation and gene-set enrichment identified Intestine-Specific Homeobox factor (ISX)-driven molecular pathway as an indicator PDAC aggressivness. TCGA-PAAD clinical data analysis showed high ISX expression correlation to poor survival of PDAC patients, particularly women. The functional studies showed ISX as a regulator of i) invasiveness and migratory potential and ii) VEGF, MMP2, and NFκB activation in PDAC cells. We suggest that ISX is a potential druggable target and newly developed spontaneous cell models are valuable tools for studying mechanism and testing therapies for PDAC.

The Chemosensory Function of Primary Cilia Regulates Cholangiocyte Migration, Invasion, and Tumor Growth.

Cholangiocytes, the epithelial cells lining the biliary tree in the liver, express primary cilia that can detect several kinds of environmental signals and then transmit this information into the cell. We have reported that cilia are significantly reduced in cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) and that the experimental deciliation of normal cells induces a malignant-like phenotype with increased proliferation, anchorage-independent growth, invasion, and migration. Here, we tested the hypothesis that the chemosensory function of cholangiocyte primary cilia acts as a mechanism for tumor suppression. We found that in the presence of extracellular nucleotides cilia-dependent chemosensation of the nucleotides inhibited migration and invasion in normal ciliated cholangiocytes through a P2Y11 receptor and liver kinase B1 (LKB1)-phosphatase and tensin homolog-AKT-dependent mechanism. In contrast, in normal deciliated cholangiocytes and CCA cells, the nucleotides induced the opposite effects, i.e., increased migration and invasion. As activation of LKB1 through a cilia-dependent mechanism was required for the nucleotide-mediated inhibitory effects on migration and invasion, we attempted to activate LKB1 directly, independent of ciliary expression, using the compound hesperidin methyl chalcone (HMC). We found that HMC induced activation of LKB1 in both ciliated and deciliated cells in vitro, resulting in the inhibition of migration and proliferation. Furthermore, using a rat syngeneic orthotopic CCA model, we found that HMC inhibited tumor growth in vivo. Conclusion: These findings highlight the importance of the chemosensory function of primary cilia for the control of migration and invasion and suggest that, by directly activating LKB1 and bypassing the need for primary cilia, it is possible to emulate this chemosensory function in CCA cells; these data warrant further studies evaluating the possibility of using HMC as therapy for CCA.

MicroRNA (miR)-433 and miR-22 dysregulations induce histone-deacetylase-6 overexpression and ciliary loss in cholangiocarcinoma.

Cholangiocytes normally express primary cilia, a multisensory organelle that detects signals from the cellular environment. Cilia are significantly reduced in cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) by a mechanism involving overexpression of histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6). Despite HDAC6 overexpression in CCA, we found no differences in its mRNA level, suggesting a posttranscriptional regulation, possibly involving microRNAs (miRNAs). Here, we describe that at least two HDAC6-targeting miRNAs, miR-433 and miR-22, are down-regulated in CCA both in vitro and in vivo. Experimental restoration of these miRNAs in CCA cells reduced HDAC6 expression, induced ciliary restoration, and decreased the malignant phenotype. Furthermore, in contrast to the mature forms, levels of precursor forms of these miRNAs were higher in CCA compared to normal cholangiocytes and accumulated in the nuclei, suggesting a defective nuclear export. We assessed the expression of Exportin-5, the protein responsible for transporting miRNA precursors out of the nucleus, and found it to be reduced by 50% in CCA compared to normal cholangiocytes. Experimental overexpression of Exportin-5 in CCA cells restored precursor and mature forms of these miRNAs to normal levels, inducing a decrease in the expression of HDAC6 and a decrease in the malignant phenotype. Conversely, short hairpin RNA (shRNA) depletion of Exportin-5 in normal cholangiocytes resulted in increased nuclear retention of precursor miRNAs, decreased mature miRNAs, increased cell proliferation, and shorter cilia. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that down-regulated Exportin-5 impairs the nuclear export of miR-433 and miR-22 precursor forms, causing a decrease in levels of mature miR-433 and miR-22 forms, and leading to overexpression of HDAC6 and ciliary loss in CCA. (Hepatology 2018).

Combination of a Histone Deacetylase 6 Inhibitor and a Somatostatin Receptor Agonist Synergistically Reduces Hepatorenal Cystogenesis in an Animal Model of Polycystic Liver Disease.

Hepatic cystogenesis in polycystic liver disease (PLD) is associated with abnormalities in multiple cellular processes, including elevated cAMP and overexpression of histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6). Disease progression in polycystic kidney (PCK) rats (an animal model of PLD) is attenuated by inhibition of either cAMP production or HDAC6. Therefore, we hypothesized that concurrent targeting of HDAC6 and cAMP would synergistically reduce cyst growth. Changes in hepatorenal cystogenesis were examined in PCK rats treated with a pan-HDAC inhibitor, panobinostat; three specific HDAC6 inhibitors, ACY-1215, ACY-738, and ACY-241; and a combination of ACY-1215 and the somatostatin receptor analogue, pasireotide. We also assessed effects of ACY-1215 and pasireotide alone and in combination on cell proliferation, cAMP production, and expression of acetylated α-tubulin in vitro in cultured cholangiocytes and the length of primary cilia and the frequency of ciliated cholangiocytes in vivo in PCK rats. Panobinostat and all three HDAC6 inhibitors decreased hepatorenal cystogenesis in PCK rats. ACY-1215 was more effective than other HDAC inhibitors and was chosen for combinational treatment. ACY-1215 + pasireotide combination synergistically reduced cyst growth and increased length of primary cilia in PCK rats. In cultured cystic cholangiocytes, ACY-1215 + pasireotide combination concurrently decreased cell proliferation and inhibited cAMP levels. These data suggest that the combination of drugs that inhibit HDAC6 and cAMP may be an effective therapy for PLD.

The cholangiocyte primary cilium in health and disease.

Cholangiocytes, like most cells, express primary cilia extending from their membranes. These organelles function as antennae which detect stimuli from bile and transmit the information into cells regulating several signaling pathways involved in secretion, proliferation and apoptosis. The ability of primary cilia to detect different signals is provided by ciliary associated proteins which are expressed in its membrane. Defects in the structure and/or function of these organelles lead to cholangiociliopathies that result in cholangiocyte hyperproliferation, altered fluid secretion and absorption. Since primary cilia dysfunction has been observed in several epithelial tumors, including cholangiocarcinoma (CCA), primary cilia have been proposed as tumor suppressor organelles. In addition, the loss of cilia is associated with dysregulation of several molecular pathways resulting in CCA development and progression. Thus, restoration of the primary cilia may be a potential therapeutic approach for several ciliopathies and CCA.

SOX17 regulates cholangiocyte differentiation and acts as a tumor suppressor in cholangiocarcinoma.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a biliary malignancy linked to genetic and epigenetic abnormalities, such as hypermethylation of SOX17 promoter. Here, the role of SOX17 in cholangiocyte differentiation and cholangiocarcinogenesis was studied. METHODS: SOX17 expression/function was evaluated along the differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) into cholangiocytes, in the dedifferentiation process of normal human cholangiocytes (NHC) in culture and in cholangiocarcinogenesis. Lentiviruses for SOX17 overexpression or knockdown were used. Gene expression and DNA methylation profiling were performed. RESULTS: SOX17 expression is induced in the last stage of cholangiocyte differentiation from iPSC and regulates the acquisition of biliary markers. SOX17 becomes downregulated in NHC undergoing dedifferentiation; experimental SOX17 knockdown in differentiated NHC downregulated biliary markers and promoted baseline and Wnt-dependent proliferation. SOX17 expression is lower in human CCA than in healthy tissue, which correlates with worse survival after tumor resection. In CCA cells, SOX17 overexpression decreased their tumorigenic capacity in murine xenograft models, which was related to increased oxidative stress and apoptosis. In contrast, SOX17 overexpression in NHC did not affect their survival but inhibited their baseline proliferation. In CCA cells, SOX17 inhibited migration, anchorage-independent growth and Wnt/ß-catenin-dependent proliferation, and restored the expression of biliary markers and primary cilium length. In human CCA, SOX17 promoter was found hypermethylated and its expression inversely correlates with the methylation grade. In NHC, Wnt3a decreased SOX17 expression in a DNMT-dependent manner, whereas in CCA, DNMT1 inhibition or silencing upregulated SOX17. CONCLUSIONS: SOX17 regulates the differentiation and maintenance of the biliary phenotype and functions as a tumor suppressor for CCA, being a potential prognostic marker and a promising therapeutic target. LAY SUMMARY: Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of CCA is key in finding new valuable diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, as well as therapeutic targets. This study provides evidence that SOX17 regulates the differentiation and maintenance of the biliary phenotype, and its downregulation promotes their tumorigenic transformation. SOX17 acts as a tumor suppressor in CCA and its genetic, molecular and/or pharmacological restoration may represent a new promising therapeutic strategy. Moreover, SOX17 expression correlates with the outcome of patients after tumor resection, being a potential prognostic biomarker.