Alcohol consumption and liver phenotype of individuals with alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is an inherited disorder caused by alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) mutations. We analysed the association between alcohol intake and liver-related parameters in individuals with the heterozygous/homozygous Pi*Z AAT variant (Pi*MZ/Pi*ZZ genotype) found in the United Kingdom Biobank and the European Alpha1 liver consortium. METHODS: Reported alcohol consumption was evaluated in two cohorts: (i) the community-based United Kingdom Biobank (17 145 Pi*MZ, 141 Pi*ZZ subjects, and 425 002 non-carriers [Pi*MM]); and (ii) the European Alpha1 liver consortium (561 Pi*ZZ individuals). Cohort (ii) included measurements of carbohydrate-deficient transferrin (CDT). RESULTS: In both cohorts, no/low alcohol intake was reported by >80% of individuals, while harmful consumption was rare (~1%). Among Pi*MM and Pi*MZ individuals from cohort (i), moderate alcohol consumption resulted in a <30% increased rate of elevated transaminases and ~50% increase in elevated gamma-glutamyl transferase values, while harmful alcohol intake led to an at least twofold increase in the abnormal levels. In Pi*ZZ individuals from both cohorts, moderate alcohol consumption had no marked impact on serum transaminase levels. Among Pi*ZZ subjects from cohort (ii) who reported no/low alcohol consumption, those with increased CDT levels more often had signs of advanced liver disease. CONCLUSIONS: Pi*MZ/Pi*ZZ genotype does not seem to markedly aggravate the hepatic toxicity of moderate alcohol consumption. CDT values might be helpful to detect alcohol consumption in those with advanced fibrosis. More data are needed to evaluate the impact of harmful alcohol consumption.

Serum/Plasma Proteome in Non-Malignant Liver Disease.

The liver is the central metabolic organ and produces 85-90% of the proteins found in plasma. Accordingly, the plasma proteome is an attractive source of liver disease biomarkers that reflects the different cell types present in this organ, as well as the processes such as responses to acute and chronic injury or the formation of an extracellular matrix. In the first part, we summarize the biomarkers routinely used in clinical evaluations and their biological relevance in the different stages of non-malignant liver disease. Later, we describe the current proteomic approaches, including mass spectrometry and affinity-based techniques, that allow a more comprehensive assessment of the liver function but also require complex data processing. The many approaches of analysis and interpretation and their potential caveats are delineated. While these advances hold the promise to transform our understanding of liver diseases and support the development and validation of new liver-related drugs, an interdisciplinary collaboration is needed.

Biomarkers of hepatocellular synthesis in patients with decompensated cirrhosis.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Since hepatocytes produce majority of serum proteins, patients with cirrhosis display substantial alterations in the serum proteome. The aim of the current study was to characterize these changes and to study the prognostic utility of hepatocellular proteins available in routine clinical testing. METHODS: Sera from 29 healthy controls and 43 patients with cirrhosis were subjected to untargeted proteomic analysis. Unsupervised hierarchical clustering was performed with Perseus software and R. Ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) suggested upstream regulators that were validated in liver tissues. The behavior and prognostic usefulness of selected biomarkers was investigated in 61 controls and 285 subjects with decompensated cirrhosis. RESULTS: Proteomics uncovered 65 and 16 hepatocellular serum proteins that are significantly downregulated or upregulated in patients with cirrhosis vs. controls. Hierarchical clustering revealed two main clusters and six sub-clusters. IPA identified HNF4α and IL-6 as the two major upstream regulators that were confirmed by hepatic gene expression analyses. Among pseudocholinesterase, transferrin, transthyretin, albumin, and apolipoprotein AI (Apo-AI), Apo-AI was the best predictor of 90-days transplant-free survival (AUROC 0.678; p = 0.0001) and remained an independent predictor in multivariable Cox independently of the presence of acute-on-chronic liver failure. CONCLUSION: Our study reveals cirrhosis-associated changes in hepatocellular serum proteins and underlying transcription factors. Serum apolipoprotein AI may constitute a useful prognostic adjunct in patients with decompensated cirrhosis.

Serum keratin 19 (CYFRA21-1) is a prognostic biomarker in severe alcoholic hepatitis.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Up to 30% of patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis (sAH) die within 3 months of presentation. The degree of ductular reaction, characterized by accumulation of biliary and liver progenitor cells, confers a poor prognosis. Keratin fragments are established serological surrogates of liver injury and keratin 19 (K19) is a histological marker of the ductular reaction. We assessed the relationship between serum K19 levels (viz. CYFRA21-1), histology and outcome in patients with sAH. METHODS: Serum CYFRA21-1 was quantified in pre-treatment serum samples from 824 patients enrolled in the STOPAH trial. The cohort was randomly divided into two groups to test mortality associations; histological analyses were performed using the 87 cases with suitable samples. RESULTS: CYFRA21-1 levels were elevated in sAH and strongly predicted alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH) on biopsy (area under the receiver operated characteristic [AUROC] 0.785 [95% Confidence Interval 0.602-0.967]) and 90-day survival (AUROC 0.684/0.693). The predictive ability of CYFRA21-1 was comparable with the model of end-stage liver disease (MELD) score and was independently associated with survival in multivariable analysis. CYFRA21-1 moderately correlated with hepatocellular injury markers M30/M65 but displayed a more robust predictive ability. A combination of MELD and CYFRA21-1 conferred a modest improvement in the AUROC value (0.731/0.743). CONCLUSIONS: In sAH serum, CYFRA21-1 levels associate with the presence of ASH on biopsy and independently predict 90-day survival. As a single marker performance is comparable to established scoring systems. Therefore, CYFRA21-1, which is available in many clinical laboratories, may become a useful component of prognostic models.

Serum transferrin as a biomarker of hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha activity and hepatocyte function in liver diseases.

BACKGROUND: Serum transferrin levels represent an independent predictor of mortality in patients with liver failure. Hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4α) is a master regulator of hepatocyte functions. The aim of this study was to explore whether serum transferrin reflects HNF4α activity. METHODS: Factors regulating transferrin expression in alcoholic hepatitis (AH) were assessed via transcriptomic/methylomic analysis as well as chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled to DNA sequencing. The findings were corroborated in primary hepatocytes. Serum and liver samples from 40 patients with advanced liver disease of multiple etiologies were also studied. RESULTS: In patients with advanced liver disease, serum transferrin levels correlated with hepatic transferrin expression (r = 0.51, p = 0.01). Immunohistochemical and biochemical tests confirmed reduced HNF4α and transferrin protein levels in individuals with cirrhosis. In AH, hepatic gene-gene correlation analysis in liver transcriptome revealed an enrichment of HNF4α signature in transferrin-correlated transcriptome while transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFß1), tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1ß), and interleukin 6 (IL-6) negatively associated with transferrin signature. A key regulatory region in transferrin promoter was hypermethylated in patients with AH. In primary hepatocytes, treatment with TGFß1 or the HNF4α inhibitor BI6015 suppressed transferrin production, while exposure to TNFα, IL-1ß, and IL-6 had no effect. The correlation between hepatic HNF4A and transferrin mRNA levels was also seen in advanced liver disease. CONCLUSIONS: Serum transferrin levels constitute a prognostic and mechanistic biomarker. Consequently, they may serve as a surrogate of impaired hepatic HNF4α signaling and liver failure.

Unexpected Pro-Fibrotic Effect of MIF in Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis Is Linked to a Shift in NKT Cell Populations.

Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is a pleiotropic inflammatory cytokine with anti-fibrotic properties in toxic liver injury models and anti-steatotic functions in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) attributed to the CD74/AMPK signaling pathway. As NAFLD progression is associated with fibrosis, we studied MIF function during NAFLD-associated liver fibrogenesis in mice and men by molecular, histological and immunological methods in vitro and in vivo. After NASH diet feeding, hepatic Mif expression was strongly induced, an effect which was absent in Mif∆hep mice. In contrast to hepatotoxic fibrosis models, NASH diet-induced fibrogenesis was significantly abrogated in Mif-/- and Mif∆hep mice associated with a reduced accumulation of the pro-fibrotic type-I NKT cell subpopulation. In vitro, MIF skewed the differentiation of NKT cells towards the type-I subtype. In line with the murine results, expression of fibrosis markers strongly correlated with MIF, its receptors, and markers of NKT type-I cells in NASH patients. We conclude that MIF expression is induced during chronic metabolic injury in mice and men with hepatocytes representing the major source. In NAFLD progression, MIF contributes to liver fibrogenesis skewing NKT cell polarization toward a pro-fibrotic phenotype highlighting the complex, context-dependent role of MIF during chronic liver injury.

Serum keratin 19 (CYFRA21-1) links ductular reaction with portal hypertension and outcome of various advanced liver diseases.

BACKGROUND: Keratins (Ks) represent tissue-specific proteins. K18 is produced in hepatocytes while K19, the most widely used ductular reaction (DR) marker, is found in cholangiocytes and hepatic progenitor cells. K18-based serum fragments are commonly used liver disease predictors, while K19-based serum fragments detected through CYFRA21-1 are established tumor but not liver disease markers yet. Since DR reflects the severity of the underlying liver disease, we systematically evaluated the usefulness of CYFRA21-1 in different liver disease severities and etiologies. METHODS: Hepatic expression of ductular keratins (K7/K19/K23) was analyzed in 57 patients with chronic liver disease (cohort i). Serum CYFRA21-1 levels were measured in 333 Austrians with advanced chronic liver disease (ACLD) of various etiologies undergoing hepatic venous pressure gradient (HVPG) measurement (cohort ii), 231 French patients with alcoholic cirrhosis (cohort iii), and 280 hospitalized Germans with decompensated cirrhosis of various etiologies (cohort iv). RESULTS: (i) Hepatic K19 levels were comparable among F0-F3 fibrosis stages, but increased in cirrhosis. Hepatic K19 mRNA strongly correlated with the levels of other DR-specific keratins. (ii) In ACLD, increased serum CYFRA21-1 associated with the presence of clinically significant portal hypertension (CSPH; HVPG ≥ 10 mmHg) (OR = 5.87 [2.95-11.68]) and mortality (HR = 3.02 [1.78-5.13]; median follow-up 22 months). (iii) In alcoholic cirrhosis, elevated serum CYFRA21-1 indicated increased risk of death/liver transplantation (HR = 2.59 [1.64-4.09]) and of HCC (HR = 1.74 [1.02-2.96]) over the long term (median follow-up 73 months). (iv) In decompensated cirrhosis, higher serum CYFRA21-1 predicted 90-day mortality (HR = 2.97 [1.92-4.60]) with a moderate accuracy (AUROC 0.64), independently from established prognostic scores. CONCLUSIONS: Hepatic K19 mRNA and serum CYFRA21-1 levels rise in cirrhosis. Increased CYFRA21-1 levels associate with the presence of CSPH and reliably indicate mortality in the short and long term independently of conventional liver biochemistry markers or scoring systems. Hence, the widely available serum CYFRA21-1 constitutes a novel, DR-related marker with prognostic implications in patients with different settings of advanced liver disease.

The Medium-Chain Fatty Acid Receptor GPR84 Mediates Myeloid Cell Infiltration Promoting Steatohepatitis and Fibrosis.

Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) have been associated with anti-steatotic effects in hepatocytes. Expression of the MCFA receptor GPR84 (G protein-coupled receptor 84) is induced in immune cells under inflammatory conditions and can promote fibrogenesis. We aimed at deciphering the role of GPR84 in the pathogenesis of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), exploring its potential as a therapeutic target. GPR84 expression is upregulated in liver from patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), correlating with the histological degree of inflammation and fibrosis. In mouse and human, activated monocytes and neutrophils upregulate GPR84 expression. Chemotaxis of these myeloid cells by GPR84 stimulation is inhibited by two novel, small molecule GPR84 antagonists. Upon acute liver injury in mice, treatment with GPR84 antagonists significantly reduced the hepatic recruitment of neutrophils, monocytes, and monocyte-derived macrophages (MoMF). We, therefore, evaluated the therapeutic inhibition of GPR84 by these two novel antagonists in comparison to selonsertib, an apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) inhibitor, in three NASH mouse models. Pharmacological inhibition of GPR84 significantly reduced macrophage accumulation and ameliorated inflammation and fibrosis, to an extent similar to selonsertib. In conclusion, our findings support that GPR84 mediates myeloid cell infiltration in liver injury and is a promising therapeutic target in steatohepatitis and fibrosis.

Serum Transferrin Is an Independent Predictor of Mortality in Severe Alcoholic Hepatitis.

OBJECTIVES: Severe alcoholic hepatitis (sAH) confers substantial mortality, but the disease course is difficult to predict. As iron parameters are attractive outcome predictors in other liver diseases, we tested their prognostic ability in sAH. METHODS: Serum ferritin, transferrin, iron, transferrin saturation, nontransferrin-bound iron, soluble transferrin receptor, and hepcidin were measured in 828 patients with sAH recruited prospectively through the STOPAH trial. The cohort was randomly divided into exploratory (n = 200) and validation sets (n = 628). RESULTS: Patients with sAH had diminished serum transferrin but increased transferrin saturation. Among iron parameters, baseline transferrin was the best predictor of 28-day (area under the receiver operated characteristic 0.72 [95% confidence interval 0.67-0.78]) and 90-day survival (area under the receiver operated characteristic 0.65 [0.61-0.70]). Transferrin's predictive ability was comparable with the composite scores, namely model of end-stage liver disease, Glasgow alcoholic hepatitis score, and discriminant function, and was independently associated with survival in multivariable analysis. These results were confirmed in a validation cohort. Transferrin did not correlate with markers of liver synthesis nor with non-transferrin-bound iron or soluble transferrin receptor (as markers of excess unbound iron and functional iron deficiency, respectively). DISCUSSION: In patients with sAH, serum transferrin predicts mortality with a performance comparable with commonly used composite scoring systems. Hence, this routinely available parameter might be a useful marker alone or as a component of prognostic models.

Mild Iron Overload as Seen in Individuals Homozygous for the Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Pi*Z Variant Does Not Promote Liver Fibrogenesis in HFE Knockout Mice.

The presence of the homozygous 'Pi*Z' variant of alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) ('Pi*ZZ' genotype) predisposes to liver fibrosis development, but the role of iron metabolism in this process remains unknown. Therefore, we assessed iron metabolism and variants in the Homeostatic Iron Regulator gene (HFE) as the major cause of hereditary iron overload in a large cohort of Pi*ZZ subjects without liver comorbidities. The human cohort comprised of 409 Pi*ZZ individuals and 254 subjects without evidence of an AAT mutation who were recruited from ten European countries. All underwent a comprehensive work-up and transient elastography to determine liver stiffness measurements (LSM). The corresponding mouse models (Pi*Z overexpressors, HFE knockouts, and double transgenic [DTg] mice) were used to evaluate the impact of mild iron overload on Pi*Z-induced liver injury. Compared to Pi*Z non-carriers, Pi*ZZ individuals had elevated serum iron, transferrin saturation, and ferritin levels, but relevant iron overload was rare. All these parameters were higher in individuals with signs of significant liver fibrosis (LSM ≥ 7.1 kPa) compared to those without signs of significant liver fibrosis. HFE knockout and DTg mice displayed similar extent of iron overload and of fibrosis. Loss of HFE did not alter the extent of AAT accumulation. In Pi*ZZ individuals, presence of HFE mutations was not associated with more severe liver fibrosis. Taken together, Pi*ZZ individuals display minor alterations in serum iron parameters. Neither mild iron overload seen in these individuals nor the presence of HFE mutations (C282Y and H63D) constitute a major contributor to liver fibrosis development.

Liver Fibrosis and Metabolic Alterations in Adults With alpha-1-antitrypsin Deficiency Caused by the Pi*ZZ Mutation.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) is among the most common genetic disorders. Severe AATD is caused by a homozygous mutation in the SERPINA1 gene that encodes the Glu342Lys substitution (called the Pi*Z mutation, Pi*ZZ genotype). Pi*ZZ carriers may develop lung and liver diseases. Mutation-associated lung disorders have been well studied, but less is known about the effects in liver. We assessed the liver disease burden and associated features in adults with this form of AATD. METHODS: We collected data from 554 Pi*ZZ adults (403 in an exploratory cohort, 151 in a confirmatory cohort), in 9 European countries, with AATD who were homozygous for the Pi*Z mutation, and 234 adults without the Pi*Z mutation (controls), all without pre-existing liver disease. We collected data on demographic parameters, comorbidities, lung- and liver-related health, and blood samples for laboratory analysis. Liver fibrosis was assessed non-invasively via the serum tests Aspartate Aminotransferase to Platelet Ratio Index and HepaScore and via transient elastography. Liver steatosis was determined via transient elastography-based controlled attenuation parameter. We performed histologic analyses of livers from transgenic mice that overexpress the AATD-associated Pi*Z variant. RESULTS: Serum levels of liver enzymes were significantly higher in Pi*ZZ carriers vs controls. Based on non-invasive tests for liver fibrosis, significant fibrosis was suspected in 20%-36% of Pi*ZZ carriers, whereas signs of advanced fibrosis were 9- to 20-fold more common in Pi*ZZ carriers compared to non-carriers. Male sex; age older than 50 years; increased levels of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, or γ-glutamyl transferase; and low numbers of platelets were associated with higher liver fibrosis burden. We did not find evidence for a relationship between lung function and liver fibrosis. Controlled attenuation parameter ≥280 dB/m, suggesting severe steatosis, was detected in 39% of Pi*ZZ carriers vs 31% of controls. Carriers of Pi*ZZ had lower serum concentrations of triglyceride and low- and very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol than controls, suggesting impaired hepatic secretion of lipid. Livers from Pi*Z-overexpressing mice had steatosis and down-regulation of genes involved in lipid secretion. CONCLUSIONS: In studies of AATD adults with the Pi*ZZ mutation, and of Pi*Z-overexpressing mice, we found evidence of liver steatosis and impaired lipid secretion. We identified factors associated with significant liver fibrosis in patients, which could facilitate hepatologic assessment and counseling of individuals who carry the Pi*ZZ mutation. ClinicalTrials.gov Number NCT02929940.

Desmoglein 2, but not desmocollin 2, protects intestinal epithelia from injury.

Desmosomes are the least understood intercellular junctions in the intestinal epithelia and provide cell-cell adhesion via the cadherins desmoglein (Dsg)2 and desmocollin (Dsc)2. We studied these cadherins in Crohn's disease (CD) patients and in newly generated conditional villin-Cre DSG2 and DSC2 knockout mice (DSG2ΔIEC; DSC2ΔIEC). CD patients exhibited altered desmosomes and reduced Dsg2/Dsc2 levels. The intestines of both transgenic animal lines were histopathologically inconspicuous. However, DSG2ΔIEC, but not DSC2ΔIEC mice displayed an increased intestinal permeability, a wider desmosomal space as well as alterations in desmosomal and tight junction components. After dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) treatment and Citrobacter rodentium exposure, DSG2ΔIEC mice developed a more-pronounced colitis, an enhanced intestinal epithelial barrier disruption, leading to a stronger inflammation and activation of epithelial pSTAT3 signaling. No susceptibility to DSS-induced intestinal injury was noted in DSC2ΔIEC animals. Dsg2 interacted with the cytoprotective chaperone Hsp70. Accordingly, DSG2ΔIEC mice had lower Hsp70 levels in the plasma membrane compartment, whereas DSC2ΔIEC mice displayed a compensatory recruitment of galectin 3, a junction-tightening protein. Our results demonstrate that Dsg2, but not Dsc2 is required for the integrity of the intestinal epithelial barrier in vivo.

Hsp72 protects against liver injury via attenuation of hepatocellular death, oxidative stress, and JNK signaling.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Heat shock protein (Hsp) 72 is a molecular chaperone that has broad cytoprotective functions and is upregulated in response to stress. To determine its hepatic functions, we studied its expression in human liver disorders and its biological significance in newly generated transgenic animals. METHODS: Double transgenic mice overexpressing Hsp72 (gene Hspa1a) under the control of a tissue-specific tetracycline-inducible system (Hsp72-LAP mice) were produced. Acute liver injury was induced by a single injection of acetaminophen (APAP). Feeding with either a methionine choline-deficient (MCD; 8 weeks) or a 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine-supplemented diet (DDC; 12 weeks) was used to induce lipotoxic injury and Mallory-Denk body (MDB) formation, respectively. Primary hepatocytes were treated with palmitic acid. RESULTS: Patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and chronic hepatitis C infection displayed elevated HSP72 levels. These levels increased with the extent of hepatic inflammation and HSP72 expression was induced after treatment with either interleukin (IL)-1ß or IL-6. Hsp72-LAP mice exhibited robust, hepatocyte-specific Hsp72 overexpression. Primary hepatocytes from these animals were more resistant to isolation-induced stress and Hsp72-LAP mice displayed lower levels of hepatic injury in vivo. Mice overexpressing Hsp72 had fewer APAP protein adducts and were protected from oxidative stress and APAP-/MCD-induced cell death. Hsp72-LAP mice and/or hepatocytes displayed significantly attenuated Jnk activation. Overexpression of Hsp72 did not affect steatosis or the extent of MDB formation. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that HSP72 induction occurs in human liver disease, thus, HSP72 represents an attractive therapeutic target owing to its broad hepatoprotective functions. LAY SUMMARY: HSP72 constitutes a stress-inducible, protective protein. Our data demonstrate that it is upregulated in patients with chronic hepatitis C and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Moreover, Hsp72-overexpressing mice are protected from various forms of liver stress.

Keratin 23 is a stress-inducible marker of mouse and human ductular reaction in liver disease.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Keratins (K) constitute the epithelial intermediate filaments. Among them, K7/K19 are widely used markers of the regenerative liver response termed ductular reaction (DR) that consists of activated biliary epithelial cells (BECs) and hepatic progenitor cells (HPCs) and correlates with liver disease severity. In the present study we aimed to characterize K23 in the liver. METHODS: We analyzed the expression and localization of K23 in the digestive system under basal conditions as well as in various human and mouse liver diseases/stress models. Cell culture studies were used to study factors regulating K23 expression. RESULTS: In untreated mice, K23 was restricted to biliary epithelia. It was (together with K7/K19) markedly upregulated in three different DR/cholestatic injury models, i.e., multidrug resistance protein 2 (Mdr2) knockouts, animals treated with 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine or subjected to bile duct ligation. K23 levels correlated with the DR marker Fn14 and immunofluorescence staining showed a distinct co-localization with K7/K19. In chronic human liver disease, K23 expression increased in patients with a more prominent inflammation/fibrosis. A dramatic upregulation (>200times) was observed in patients with acute liver failure (ALF) and end-stage primary biliary cholangitis (PBC). Patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis displayed increased K23 serum levels. In primary hepatocytes as well as hepatobiliary cell lines, treatment with TNF-related weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK), and the type I acute phase inducer interleukin (IL)-1ß but not the type II inducer IL-6 elevated K23 expression. CONCLUSIONS: K23 represents a specific, stress-inducible DR marker, whose levels correlate with liver disease severity. K23 may represent a useful non-invasive DR marker. LAY SUMMARY: Ductular reaction represents a basic response to liver injury and correlates with liver disease severity. Our study identifies K23 as a novel ductular reaction marker in mice and humans.

Simple Epithelial Keratins.

Simple epithelial keratins (SEKs) are the cytoplasmic intermediate filament proteins of single-layered and glandular epithelial cells as found in the liver, pancreas, intestine, and lung. SEKs have broad cytoprotective functions, which are facilitated by dynamic posttranslational modifications and interaction with associated proteins. SEK filaments are composed of obligate heteropolymers of type II (K7, K8) and type I (K18-K20, K23) keratins. The multifaceted roles of SEKs are increasingly appreciated due to findings obtained from transgenic mouse models and human studies that identified SEK variants in several digestive diseases. Reorganization of the SEK network into aggregates called Mallory-Denk bodies (MDBs) is characteristic for specific liver disorders such as alcoholic and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. To spur further research on SEKs, we here review the methods and potential caveats of their isolation as well as possibilities to study them in cell culture. The existing transgenic SEK mouse models, their advantages and potential drawbacks are discussed. The tools to induce MDBs, ways of their visualization and quantification, as well as the possibilities to detect SEK variants in humans are summarized.

Loss of keratin 19 favours the development of cholestatic liver disease through decreased ductular reaction.

Keratins (K) are cytoprotective proteins and keratin mutations predispose to the development of multiple human diseases. K19 represents the most widely used marker of biliary and hepatic progenitor cells as well as a marker of ductular reaction that constitutes the basic regenerative response to chronic liver injury. In the present study, we investigated the role of K19 in biliary and hepatic progenitor cells and its importance for ductular reaction. K19 wild-type (WT) and knockout (KO) mice were fed: (a) 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine (DDC); (b) cholic acid (CA); (c) a choline-deficient, ethionine-supplemented (CDE) diet; or (d) were subjected to common bile duct ligation (CBDL). The bile composition, liver damage, bile duct proliferation, oval cell content and biliary fibrosis were analysed. In untreated animals, loss of K19 led to redistribution of the K network in biliary epithelial cells (BECs) but to no obvious biliary phenotype. After DDC feeding, K19 KO mice exhibited (compared to WTs): (a) increased cholestasis; (b) less pronounced ductular reaction with reduced ductular proliferation and fewer oval cells; (c) impaired Notch 2 signalling in BECs; (d) lower biliary fibrosis score and biliary bicarbonate concentration. An attenuated oval cell proliferation in K19 KOs was also found after feeding with the CDE diet. K19 KOs subjected to CBDL displayed lower BEC proliferation, oval cell content and less prominent Notch 2 signal. K19 deficiency did not change the extent of CA- or CBDL-induced liver injury and fibrosis. Our results demonstrate that K19 plays an important role in the ductular reaction and might be of importance in multiple chronic liver disorders that frequently display a ductular reaction.

Human keratin 8 variants promote mouse acetaminophen hepatotoxicity coupled with c-jun amino-terminal kinase activation and protein adduct formation.

UNLABELLED: Keratins 8 and 18 (K8/K18) are the intermediate filaments proteins of simple-type digestive epithelia and provide important cytoprotective function. K8/K18 variants predispose humans to chronic liver disease progression and poor outcomes in acute acetaminophen (APAP)-related liver failure. Given that K8 G62C and R341H/R341C are common K8 variants in European and North American populations, we studied their biological significance using transgenic mice. Mice that overexpress the human K8 variants, R341H or R341C, were generated and used together with previously described mice that overexpress wild-type K8 or K8 G62C. Mice were injected with 600 mg/kg of APAP or underwent bile duct ligation (BDL). Livers were evaluated by microarray analysis, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, immunoblotting, histological and immunological staining, and biochemical assays. Under basal conditions, the K8 G62C/R341H/R341C variant-expressing mice did not show an obvious liver phenotype or altered keratin filament distribution, whereas K8 G62C/R341C animals had aberrant disulphide cross-linked keratins. Animals carrying the K8 variants displayed limited gene expression changes, but had lower nicotinamide N-methyl transferase (NNMT) levels and were predisposed to APAP-induced hepatotoxicity. NNMT represents a novel K8/K18-associated protein that becomes up-regulated after K8/K18 transfection. The more pronounced liver damage was accompanied by increased and prolonged JNK activation; elevated APAP protein adducts; K8 hyperphosphorylation at S74/S432 with enhanced keratin solubility; and prominent pericentral keratin network disruption. No differences in APAP serum levels, glutathione, or adenosine triphosphate levels were noted. BDL resulted in similar liver injury and biliary fibrosis in all mouse genotypes. CONCLUSION: Expression of human K8 variants G62C, R341H, or R341C in mice predisposes to acute APAP hepatotoxicity, thereby providing direct evidence for the importance of these variants in human acute liver failure.

Epiplakin attenuates experimental mouse liver injury by chaperoning keratin reorganization.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Epiplakin is a member of the plakin protein family and exclusively expressed in epithelial tissues where it binds to keratins. Epiplakin-deficient (Eppk1(-/-)) mice displayed no obvious spontaneous phenotype, but their keratinocytes showed a faster keratin network breakdown in response to stress. The role of epiplakin in the stressed liver remained to be elucidated. METHODS: Wild-type (WT) and Eppk1(-/-) mice were subjected to common bile duct ligation (CBDL) or fed with a 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine (DDC)-containing diet. The importance of epiplakin during keratin reorganization was assessed in primary hepatocytes. RESULTS: Our experiments revealed that epiplakin is expressed in hepatocytes and cholangiocytes, and binds to keratin 8 (K8) and K18 via multiple domains. In several liver stress models epiplakin and K8 genes displayed identical expression patterns and transgenic K8 overexpression resulted in elevated hepatic epiplakin levels. After CBDL and DDC treatment, Eppk1(-/-) mice developed a more pronounced liver injury and their livers contained larger amounts of hepatocellular keratin granules, indicating impaired disease-induced keratin network reorganization. In line with these findings, primary Eppk1(-/-) hepatocytes showed increased formation of keratin aggregates after treatment with the phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid, a phenotype which was rescued by the chemical chaperone trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO). Finally, transfection experiments revealed that Eppk1(-/-) primary hepatocytes were less able to tolerate forced K8 overexpression and that TMAO treatment rescued this phenotype. CONCLUSION: Our data indicate that epiplakin plays a protective role during experimental liver injuries by chaperoning disease-induced keratin reorganization.

Keratins 8 and 18 are type II acute-phase responsive genes overexpressed in human liver disease.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Keratins (Ks) 7, 8, 18 and 19 constitute important markers and modifiers of liver disease. In mice, K8 and K18 are stress inducible and a dysregulated K8 > K18 stoichiometry predisposes to formation of Mallory-Denk bodies (MDBs), i.e. aggregates characteristic of chronic liver disorders such as alcoholic liver disease (ALD). In our study, we analyse the expression and the regulation of keratins in context of human liver disease. METHODS: K7, K8, K18 and K19 mRNA levels were determined in liver biopsies from patients with ALD, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), chronic hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV) and from control subjects. HepG2 and Hep3B cells were treated with IL-1ß, IL-6 and TNF-α. Mice were injected with turpentine, an established IL-6 inducer. RESULTS: K7, K8 and K18 were 1.5- to 3-fold upregulated in livers of ALD and HCV patients with a more active disease, but not in HBV/NASH subjects, while K19 was significantly elevated in all analysed disorders. K8 and K18 expression displayed a strong correlation (r = 0.89), but dysregulated levels with the K8 > K18 state were seen in ALD. All keratins were overexpressed in subjects with moderate vs. minimal inflammation, while K7, K8 and K18 were upregulated in patients with advanced liver fibrosis. In HepG2/Hep3B cells, IL-6 treatment but not IL-1ß or TNF-α significantly increased K8 and K18 expression and elevated K18 levels were seen after turpentine injection. CONCLUSIONS: Keratins represent type II acute-phase responsive genes overexpressed in specific human liver disorders. A K8 > K18 state occurs in ALD and predisposes to MDB formation.

High-fat diet triggers Mallory-Denk body formation through misfolding and crosslinking of excess keratin 8.

UNLABELLED: Mallory-Denk bodies (MDBs) are protein aggregates consisting of ubiquitinated keratins 8/18 (K8/K18). MDBs are characteristic of alcoholic and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and discriminate between the relatively benign simple steatosis and the more aggressive NASH. Given the emerging evidence for a genetic predisposition to MDB formation and NASH development in general, we studied whether high-fat (HF) diet triggers MDB formation and liver injury in susceptible animals. Mice were fed a high-fat (HF) or low-fat (LF) diet plus a cofactor for MDB development, 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine (DDC). Additionally, we fed nontransgenic and K8 overexpressing mice (K8tg) with the HF diet. The presence of MDB and extent of liver injury was evaluated using biochemical markers, histological staining, and immunofluorescence microscopy. In DDC-fed animals, an HF diet resulted in greater liver injury and up-regulation of inflammation-related genes. As a potential mechanism, K8/K18 accumulation and increased ecto-5'-nucleotidase (CD73) levels were noted. In the genetically susceptible K8tg mice, HF diet triggered hepatocellular injury, ballooning, apoptosis, inflammation, and MDB development by way of 1) decreased expression of the major stress-inducible chaperone Hsp72 with appearance of misfolded keratins; 2) elevated levels of the transglutaminase 2 (TG2); 3) increased K8 phosphorylation at S74 with subsequent TG2-mediated crosslinking of phosphorylated K8; and 4) higher production of the MDB-modifier gene CD73. CONCLUSION: Our data demonstrate that HF diet triggers aggregate formation and development of liver injury in susceptible individuals through misfolding and crosslinking of excess K8.