Lateness of Acetaminophen and Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drug Administrations in a Retrospective Cohort of Medication Administration Records Among Patients After Cesarean Delivery.

INTRODUCTION: In an earlier study of patients after cesarean delivery, the concurrent versus alternating administration of acetaminophen and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs was associated with a substantial reduction in total postoperative opioid use. This likely pharmacodynamic effect may differ if the times when nurses administer acetaminophen and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs often differ substantively from when they are due. We examined the "lateness" of analgesic dose administration times, the positive difference if administered late, and the negative value if early. METHODS: The retrospective cohort study used all 67,900 medication administration records for scheduled (i.e., not "as needed") acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and ketorolac among all 3,163 cesarean delivery cases at the University of Iowa between January 2021 and December 2023. Barcode scanning at the patient's bedside was used right before each medication administration. RESULTS: There were 95% of doses administered over a 4.8-hour window, from 108 minutes early (97.5% one-sided upper confidence limit 105 minutes early) to 181 minutes late (97.5% one-sided lower limit 179 minutes late). Fewer than half of doses (46%, P <0.0001) were administered ±30 minutes of the due time. The intraclass correlation coefficient was approximately 0.11, showing that there were small systematic differences among patients. There likewise were small to no systematic differences in lateness based on concurrent administrations of acetaminophen and ibuprofen or ketorolac, time of the day that medications were due, weekday, year, or number of medications to be administered among all such patients within 15 minutes. DISCUSSION: Other hospitals should check the lateness of medication administration when that would change their ability to perform or apply the results of analgesic clinical trials (e.g., simultaneous versus alternating administration).

Comorbid Chronic Pain and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Current Rates and Psychiatric Comorbidities Among U.S. Military Veterans.

INTRODUCTION: This study reports rates of comorbid chronic pain and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among U.S. military veterans and rates of psychiatric comorbidities among those with both chronic pain and PTSD. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study utilized National Veterans Affairs (VA) administrative data to identify all veterans treated for chronic pain or PTSD in 2023. Multivariable logistic regression models determined the likelihood of each psychiatric comorbidity for those with chronic pain and PTSD relative to those with chronic pain only and separately to those with PTSD only, after adjusting for demographic variables and all other psychiatric comorbidities. RESULTS: Of the 5,846,453 service users of the VA in 2023, a total of 2,091,391 (35.8%) met the criteria for chronic pain and 850,191 (14.5%) met the criteria for PTSD. Furthermore, 21.6% of those with chronic pain also had PTSD and over half (53.2%) of those with PTSD also met the criteria for chronic pain (n = 452,113). Veterans with chronic pain and PTSD were significantly more likely to be women, Black or African American, Hispanic or Latina, and urban dwelling. Veterans with chronic pain and PTSD had significantly higher rates of all selected comorbidities relative to veterans with chronic pain only. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with comorbid chronic pain and PTSD may benefit from tailored treatments to address the additive impact of these conditions.

What's Gender Got to Do With It: Accounting for Differences in Incident Guideline Discordant Prescribing for PTSD Among Women and Men Veterans.

Objectives: Women veterans are more likely than men veterans to receive medications that Department of Veterans Affairs clinical practice guidelines recommend against to treat posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). To understand this difference, we examined potential confounders in incident prescribing of guideline discordant medications (GDMs) in veterans with PTSD.Methods: Veterans receiving care for PTSD during 2020 were identified using Veterans Health Administration administrative data. PTSD diagnosis was established by the presence of at least 1 ICD-10 coded outpatient encounter or inpatient hospitalization during the calendar year 2020. Incident GDM prescribing was assessed during 2021, including benzodiazepines, antipsychotics, select anticonvulsants, and select antidepressants. Log-binomial regression was used to estimate the difference in risk for GDM initiation between men and women, adjusted for patient, prescriber, and facility-level covariates, and to identify key confounding variables.Results: Of 704,699 veterans with PTSD, 16.9% of women and 10.1% of men initiated a GDM, an increased risk of 67% for women [relative risk (RR) = 1.67; 95% CI, 1.65-1.70]. After adjustment, the gender difference decreased to 1.22 (95% CI, 1.20-1.24) in a fully specified model. Three key confounding variables were identified: bipolar disorder (RR = 1.60; 95% CI, 1.57-1.63), age (<40 years: RR = 1.20 [1.18-1.22]; 40-54 years: RR = 1.13 [1.11-1.16]; ≥65 years: RR = 0.64 [0.62-0.65]), and count of distinct psychiatric medications prescribed in the prior year (RR = 1.14; 1.13-1.14).Conclusions: Women veterans with PTSD were 67% more likely to initiate a GDM, where more than half of this effect was explained by bipolar disorder, age, and prior psychiatric medication. After adjustment, women veterans remained at 22% greater risk for an incident GDM, suggesting that other factors remain unidentified and warrant further investigation.

Care Fragmentation, Social Determinants of Health, and Postoperative Mortality in Older Veterans.

INTRODUCTION: Veterans Affairs Surgical Quality Improvement Program (VASQIP) benchmarking algorithms helped the Veterans Health Administration (VHA) reduce postoperative mortality. Despite calls to consider social risk factors, these algorithms do not adjust for social determinants of health (SDoH) or account for services fragmented between the VHA and the private sector. This investigation examines how the addition of SDoH change model performance and quantifies associations between SDoH and 30-d postoperative mortality. METHODS: VASQIP (2013-2019) cohort study in patients ≥65 y old with 2-30-d inpatient stays. VASQIP was linked to other VHA and Medicare/Medicaid data. 30-d postoperative mortality was examined using multivariable logistic regression models, adjusting first for clinical variables, then adding SDoH. RESULTS: In adjusted analyses of 93,644 inpatient cases (97.7% male, 79.7% non-Hispanic White), higher proportions of non-veterans affairs care (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.02, 95% CI = 1.01-1.04) and living in highly deprived areas (aOR = 1.15, 95% CI = 1.02-1.29) were associated with increased postoperative mortality. Black race (aOR = 0.77, CI = 0.68-0.88) and rurality (aOR = 0.87, CI = 0.79-0.96) were associated with lower postoperative mortality. Adding SDoH to models with only clinical variables did not improve discrimination (c = 0.836 versus c = 0.835). CONCLUSIONS: Postoperative mortality is worse among Veterans receiving more health care outside the VA and living in highly deprived neighborhoods. However, adjusting for SDoH is unlikely to improve existing mortality-benchmarking models. Reduction efforts for postoperative mortality could focus on alleviating care fragmentation and designing care pathways that consider area deprivation. The adjusted survival advantage for rural and Black Veterans may be of interest to private sector hospitals as they attempt to alleviate enduring health-care disparities.

Social Determinants of Long-Term Opioid Use Following Total Knee Arthroplasty.

Total knee arthroplasty (TKA) risks persistent pain and long-term opioid use (LTO). The role of social determinants of health (SDoH) in LTO is not well established. We hypothesized that SDoH would be associated with postsurgical LTO after controlling for relevant demographic and clinical variables. This study utilized data from the Veterans Affairs Surgical Quality Improvement Program, VA Corporate Data Warehouse, and Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, including Veterans aged ≥ 65 who underwent elective TKA between 2013 and 2019 with no postsurgical complications or history of significant opioid use. LTO was defined as > 90 days of opioid use beginning within 90 days postsurgery. SDoH variables included the Area Deprivation Index, rurality, and housing instability in the last 12 months identified via medical record screener or International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision codes. Multivariable risk adjustment models controlled for demographic and clinical characteristics. Of the 9,064 Veterans, 97% were male, 84.2% white, mean age was 70.6 years, 46.3% rural, 11.2% living in highly deprived areas, and 0.9% with a history of homelessness/housing instability. Only 3.7% (n = 336) developed LTO following TKA. In a logistic regression model of only SDoH variables, housing instability (odds ratio [OR] = 2.38, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.09-5.22) and rurality conferred significant risk for LTO. After adjusting for demographic and clinical variables, LTO was only associated with increasing days of opioid supply in the year prior to surgery (OR = 1.52, 95% CI: 1.43-1.63 per 30 days) and the initial opioid fill (OR = 1.07; 95% CI: 1.06-1.08 per day). Our primary hypothesis was not supported; however, our findings do suggest that patients with housing instability may present unique challenges for postoperative pain management and be at higher risk for LTO.

Veterans with chronic pain: Examining gender differences in pain type, overlap, and the impact of post-traumatic stress disorder.

BACKGROUND: Women are more likely to experience multiple overlapping pain conditions (MOPCs) relative to men. Post-traumatic stress disorder can negatively impact the severity and trajectory of chronic pain and its treatment. Specific associations between gender, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and MOPCs require further examination. METHODS: A cohort of all Veterans in 2021 who met criteria for one or more of 12 chronic pain types was created using national Veterans Health Administration administrative data. MOPCs were defined as the number of pain types for which each patient met criteria. Multivariable logistic regression models estimated gender differences in frequency for each of the 12 pain subtypes, after controlling for demographics and comorbidities. Negative binomial regression was used to estimate gender differences in the count of MOPCs and to explore moderation effects between gender and PTSD. RESULTS: The cohort included 1,936,859 Veterans with chronic pain in 2021, which included 12.5% women. Among those with chronic pain, women Veterans had higher rates of MOPCs (mean = 2.3) relative to men (mean = 1.9): aIRR = 1.31, 95% CI: 1.30-1.32. PTSD also served as an independent risk factor for MOPCs in adjusted analysis (aIRR = 1.23, 95% CI: 1.23-1.24). The interaction term between gender and PTSD was not significant (p = 0.87). Independent of PTSD, depressive disorders also served as a strong risk factor for MOPCs (aIRR = 1.37, 95% CI: 1.36-1.37). CONCLUSIONS: Individuals with MOPCs and PTSD may have complex treatment needs. They may benefit from highly coordinated trauma-sensitive care and integrated interventions that simultaneously address pain and PTSD. SIGNIFICANCE: Women were significantly more likely than men to experience MOPCs. PTSD was also significantly, independently, associated with MOPCs. Patients, particularly women, may benefit from tailored interventions that address both trauma and MOPCs.

Continuation of Buprenorphine During Hospitalization and Subsequent Retention in Therapy: an Observational Study in Veterans Administration Hospitals.

BACKGROUND: Inpatient hospitalization has the potential to disrupt buprenorphine therapy. OBJECTIVE: Among patients receiving outpatient buprenorphine prior to admission, we determined the rate of discontinuation during medical and surgical admissions to VA hospitals and its association with subsequent post-discharge continuation of buprenorphine therapy. DESIGN AND MAIN MEASURES: We conducted an observational study using Veterans Administration data from 10/1/2018 to 3/31/2020 for all medical and surgical admissions where Veterans had active buprenorphine prescriptions at the time of admission. Pre-admission buprenorphine prescriptions were categorized as either sublingual (presumed indication for opioid use disorder (OUD)) or buccal/topical (presumed indication for pain). The primary measure of post-discharge buprenorphine receipt was any outpatient buprenorphine prescription dispensed between 1 day prior to discharge and 60 days following discharge. KEY RESULTS: A total of 830 unique inpatient hospitalizations to medical or surgical services occurred among Veterans receiving sublingual (48.3%) or buccal/topical (51.7%) buprenorphine prior to admission. Fewer than half (43.9%) of these patients received buprenorphine at some point during the medical or surgical portion of their hospital stay. Among the 766 patients discharged from a medical or surgical unit, 74.3% received an outpatient buprenorphine prescription within the 60 days following discharge (80.2% sublingual and 69.1% buccal/topical). Among patients who had received buprenorphine during the final 36 h prior to discharge, subsequent outpatient buprenorphine receipt was observed in 94.0%, compared to only 63.7% among those not receiving buprenorphine during the final 36 h (χ2 = 83.5, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Inpatient buprenorphine administrations near the time of discharge were highly predictive of continued outpatient therapy and a significant subset of patients did not continue or reinitiate buprenorphine therapy following discharge. As recommendations for perioperative and inpatient management of buprenorphine coalescence around continuation, efforts are needed to optimize hospital-based buprenorphine practices.

The Impact of Comorbid Chronic Pain on Pharmacotherapy for Veterans with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.

OBJECTIVE: Chronic pain can worsen PTSD symptomatology and may increase the risk of the prescription of multiple central nervous system (CNS)-active medications. The objective is to determine the impact of chronic pain on the number of CNS medications, including psychiatric medications, as well as the amount of medication changes. METHODS: Veterans Affairs (VA) administrative data were used to identify VA-served Veterans with PTSD (N = 637,428) who had chronic pain (50.3%) and did not have chronic pain (49.7%) in 2020. The outcomes included the number of changes in psychiatric medications and the number of currently prescribed CNS-active mediations during a one-year observation period. RESULTS: The number of changes in psychiatric medications was significantly higher for those with chronic pain (mean (M) = 1.8) versus those without chronic pain (M = 1.6) (Z = 38.4, p < 0.001). The mean number of concurrent CNS-active medications were significantly higher for those with chronic pain (M = 2.7) versus those without chronic pain (M = 2.0) (Z = 179.7, p < 0.001). These differences persisted after adjustment for confounding factors using negative binomial regression. CONCLUSIONS: Veterans with comorbid chronic pain and PTSD are at increased risk for a higher number of medication changes and for receiving CNS-active polytherapy.

"It Made Me Not Want to See him ": The Role of Patient-Provider Communication in Influencing Rural-Dwelling Women Veterans' Motivation to Seek Health Care for Managing Chronic Pain.

Despite being high health care utilizers, many women Veterans perceive their pain condition to be poorly understood by their providers, which can be a strong demotivator for seeking care. We set out to understand the priorities rural-dwelling women Veterans have for using health care for their chronic pain, and interviewed participants about their experiences with (and priorities for seeking) health care for their chronic pain. Self-Determination Theory identifies three sources of motivation (autonomy, competence, relatedness), all of which were represented through two themes that reflect rural women Veterans' rationale for decision-making to obtain health care for chronic pain: role of trust and competing priorities. Women described their priorities for chronic pain management in terms of their competing priorities for work, education, and supporting their family, but most expressed a desire to function in their daily life and relationships. Second, women discussed the role of trust in their provider as a source of motivation, and the role of patient-provider communication skills and gender played in establishing trust. Rural women Veterans often discussed core values that stemmed from facets of their identity (e.g. gender, military training, ethnicity) that also influenced their decision-making. Our findings provide insight for how providers may use Motivational Interviewing and discuss chronic pain treatment options so that rural-dwelling women Veterans feel autonomous, competent, and understood in their decision-making about their chronic pain. We also discuss importance of acknowledging the effects of disenfranchising talk and perpetuating gendered stereotypes related to chronic pain and theoretical implications of this work.

Differences in chronic pain care receipt among veterans from differing racialized groups and the impact of rural versus urban residence.

PURPOSE: The current study aimed to identify differences in Veterans Affairs (VA) chronic pain care for Black, Asian, and Hispanic Americans, compared to non-Hispanic White Americans, and examine the intersection of race and rurality. METHODS: Using national administrative data, all veterans who presented to the VA for chronic pain in 2018 were included. Demographic and comorbidity variables were built from 2018 data and health care utilization variables from 2019 data. Multivariate log-binomial regression models examined differences between racialized groups, and interactions with rural/urban residence, for each health care utilization variable. FINDINGS: The full cohort included 2,135,216 veterans with chronic pain. There were no differences between racialized groups in pain-related primary care visits. Black Americans were less likely to receive pain clinic visits (aRR = 0.87, CI: 0.86-0.88). Rurality further decreased the likelihood of Black Americans visiting a pain clinic. Black, Hispanic, and Asian Americans were more likely to receive pain-related physical therapy visits relative to White Americans. Black and Hispanic Americans were more likely to present to emergency/urgent care for chronic pain. While there were no differences in pain-related primary care visits, the decreased likelihood of pain clinic visits and increased use of emergency department/urgent care among Black Americans could indicate inadequate management of chronic pain. CONCLUSIONS: Tailored strategies are needed to provide equitable care that meets the needs of patients from racialized groups while accounting for systemic and cultural factors.

Military Veterans' Perspectives on Postoperative Opioid Use: A Secondary Analysis of Qualitative Data.

PURPOSE: This qualitative analysis of interviews with surgical patients who received a brief perioperative psychological intervention, in conjunction with standard medical perioperative care, elucidates patient perspectives on the use of pain self-management skills in relation to postoperative analgesics. DESIGN: This study is a secondary analysis of qualitative data from a randomized controlled trial. METHODS: Participants (N = 21) were rural-dwelling United States Military Veterans from a mixed surgical sample who were randomized to receive a manual-based, telephone-based Perioperative Pain Self-management intervention consisting of a total of four pre- and postoperative contacts. Semi-structured qualitative interviews elicited participant feedback on the cognitive-behavioral intervention. Data was analyzed by two qualitative experts using MAXQDA software. Key word analyses focused on mention of analgesics in interviews. FINDINGS: Interviews revealed a dominant theme of ambivalence towards postoperative use of opioids. An additional theme concerned the varied ways acquiring pain self-management skills impacted postoperative opioid (and non-opioid analgesic) consumption. Participants reported that employment of pain self-management strategies reduced reliance on pharmacology for pain relief, prolonged the time between doses, took the "edge off" pain, and increased pain management self-efficacy. CONCLUSIONS: Perioperative patient education may benefit from inclusion of teaching non-pharmacologic pain self-management skills and collaborative planning with patients regarding how to use these skills in conjunction with opioid and non-opioid analgesics. Perianesthesia nurses may be in a critical position to provide interdisciplinary postoperative patient education that may optimize postoperative pain management while minimizing risks associated with prolonged opioid use.

Rurality impacts pain care for female veterans similarly to male veterans.

PURPOSE: Rural disparities exist in access to multidisciplinary pain care with higher rates of opioid prescribing in rural regions. Among Veterans, who have prevalent rates of chronic pain, women often evidence complex presentations, multiple comorbidities, and dissatisfaction with care. This study investigates the impact of rurality on pain care for women specifically, and whether this varies from the impact of rurality for men. METHODS: A cohort of Veterans with chronic pain in 2018 was built utilizing VA administrative data. Variables of interest included: demographic, comorbidities, medications, and health care utilization for chronic pain. FINDINGS: The cohort included 2,261,030 Veterans; 11% (n = 248,977) were women. Significantly fewer women (7%) compared to men (10.7%) received long-term opioids (adjusted OR = 0.77, 95% CI: 0.75-0.78). Men, relative to women, were also more likely to receive gabapentinoids and nonsteroidal ant-inflammatory drugs, whereas women, relative to men, were more likely to receive muscle relaxants and duloxetine. Women were more likely to receive most psychiatric medications. Rural women received more primary care visits compared to urban women (adjusted OR = 1.19, 95% CI: 1.15-1.22), but fewer women's clinic visits (a subset of primary care visits: adjusted OR = 0.69, 95% CI:0.67-0.71) and fewer pain specialty care visits (physical therapy, pain clinic, and mental health visits with pain codes). Rural effects did not vary substantially between women and men. CONCLUSIONS: Rural-dwelling Veterans received more pain and psychiatric medications compared to urban Veterans and fewer specialty care visits. Rural Veterans may benefit from increased access to specialty chronic pain care.

Race Differences in Veteran's Affairs Emergency Department Utilization.

INTRODUCTION: African Americans (AAs) experience disparities in chronic pain care. This study aimed to identify the rates of emergency department (ED) utilization for visits associated with chronic pain diagnoses among AAs compared to Whites and to determine variables that accounted for any differences. METHODS: This retrospective observational study used national Veterans Affairs (Veteran's Health Administration) administrative data to identify Veterans with chronic pain diagnoses in 2018. Race/ethnicity was self-reported and assessed to examine if differences exist in ED utilization. Differences between AAs and Whites were examined using negative binomial regression models, controlling for ethnicity. Multivariable models (including demographics, pain characteristics, psychiatric comorbidities, medical comorbidities, pain-related health care utilization, and medication utilization) were examined to determine factors that contributed to these disparities. RESULTS: Among the 2,261,030 patients, 22% (n = 492,138) were AA. The incidence rate ratio of ED utilization for AAs, relative to Whites, was 1.58 (95% CI: 1.56-1.59). The only independent variable that produced a clinically meaningful reduction in the race effect on ED use was rurality, which was associated with reduced ED use. Post hoc model including all variables reduced the race effect to 1.37 (95% CI: 1.36-1.38). CONCLUSION: AA Veterans had a 58% greater risk of ED utilization for visits associated with chronic pain diagnoses relative to White Veterans, which remained meaningfully elevated after adjustment for observable confounders (37%). This observation may reflect disparities in outpatient chronic pain care for AAs. Future research could focus on enhancing therapeutic alliance in primary care to improve chronic pain treatment for AAs.

Gender differences in medication prescribing patterns for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: A 10-year follow-up study.

Women veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have historically received more psychiatric medications than men. The current analysis identified prescribing trends of medications recommended for (i.e., select antidepressants) and against (i.e., benzodiazepines, select antidepressants, antipsychotics, and select anticonvulsants) use in PTSD treatment among women and men in 2010-2019. All veterans receiving care for PTSD in 2019 were identified using national U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) administrative data. Multivariable logistic regression analyses, adjusted for demographic characteristics and psychiatric comorbidities, were used to contrast the likelihood of receiving a medication class across genders. Sensitivity analyses using identical selection methods were conducted for the calendar years 2010, 2013, and 2016. In 2019, 877,785 veterans received treatment for PTSD within the VA, 13.5% of whom were women. Across medication classes and years, women were more likely to receive all psychiatric medications of interest. Relative to men, women were slightly more likely to receive antidepressants recommended for PTSD in 2019, adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 1.07, 95% CI [1.06, 1.09]. However, gender differences for medications recommended against use for PTSD were notably larger, including benzodiazepines, aOR = 1.62, 95% CI [1.59, 1.65]; anticonvulsants. aOR = 1.41, 95% CI [1.38, 1.44]; and antidepressants recommended against use for PTSD, aOR = 1.26, 95% CI [1.19, 1.33]. To inform tailored intervention strategies, future work is needed to fully understand why women receive more medications recommended against use for PTSD.

The Perioperative Pain Self-Management (PePS) randomized controlled trial protocol: Preventing chronic post-surgical pain and prolonged opioid use.

BACKGROUND: Total joint arthroplasties are common orthopedic surgeries that carry risk for developing chronic post-surgical pain. In addition to pre- and post-operative pain severity, psychological distress (e.g., anxiety, pain catastrophizing) is a risk factor for chronic postsurgical pain. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for chronic pain is an empirically supported approach to managing chronic pain, functional impairment, and related distress. While CBT has been used extensively in patients with established chronic pain, using it as a preventive intervention targeting the transition from acute to chronic postsurgical pain is a novel application. OBJECTIVES: The Perioperative Pain Self-Management (PePS) program is a pain self-management intervention based on the principles of CBT. This innovative intervention is brief, flexible, and is delivered remotely. The current study aims to determine the efficacy of PePS compared to standard care on reducing the incidence of significant surgical site pain at 6-months post-surgery. The current study also aims to evaluate the context for subsequent implementation. METHODS: This study is a hybrid type I efficacy-preparing for implementation trial. It is a two-site, single-blind, two-arm, parallel, randomized control trial. Surgical patients will be randomized to either receive: 1) PePS plus standard care, or 2) Standard care. The primary end point will be surgical site pain severity at 6-months post-surgery. CONCLUSION: Results from this study are expected to result in support for a brief scalable intervention (PePS) that can prevent the development of chronic pain and prolonged post-surgical opioid use, as well as key details to inform subsequent implementation. CLINICALTRIALS: govIdentifier:NCT04979429.

Opioid prescribing patterns for acute pain.

PURPOSE: The current study aimed to identify patients presenting with acute pain who may be at risk for a complicated trajectory, via identifying clusters of early opioid prescribing patterns. METHODS: National Veterans Affairs administrative data were utilized to build a cohort of outpatients with acute pain presentations and no more than minimal opioid use in the prior year. Latent Class Analyses (LCAs) identified clusters of early opioid prescribing patterns. The risk of progression to long-term opioid use was contrasted between LCA clusters using log-binomial regression, adjusting for confounding variables. RESULTS: The 2018 cohort included N = 191,283. Among the 27,890 who received an initial opioid prescription, LCA classes were identified using: first supply day, total days dispensed across 30 days, opioid type, dose and number of prescriptions across the first 30 days. In the three-class model: class 1 indicated an immediate, low-dose and brief supply; class 2 included delayed, low-dose and longer duration prescriptions and class 3 included delayed, high-dose and moderate duration prescriptions. Adjusted relative risk ratios for progression to long-term opioid use in the following year were 3.33 (95% CI: 2.71-4.10) for class 1 (absolute risk 1.1%); 7.76 (95% CI: 6.69-8.99) for class 2 (3.1%) and 6.81 (95% CI: 5.72-8.12) for class 3 (2.4%) compared to patients who did not receive an acute opioid prescription (0.3%). CONCLUSIONS: These clusters of acute opioid prescribing could facilitate the identification of patients who may benefit from enhanced pain care earlier in the pain trajectory and decrease future reliance on long-term opioid therapy.

A Survey on Opioid Tapering Practices, Policies, and Perspectives by Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacists.

Opioid tapering is an essential clinical tool to utilize for a variety of reasons, including safety and analgesic optimization. The need for individualized regimens reveals a corresponding need for healthcare providers who can actively manage patients throughout the process. Pharmacists have taken on an integral role for achieving success in opioid tapering. This survey was conducted to describe the current opioid tapering practices of pain and palliative care pharmacists. A Qualtrics survey was offered to the Society of Pain and Palliative Care Pharmacist members. The majority (87%) indicated they specialized in pain management. Almost all respondents (98%) reported providing tapering recommendations and 82% reported being involved with patient monitoring throughout the taper. The majority (multiple responses could be chosen) noted that the indication for initiating an opioid taper was due to abuse/misuse (91%), reduced overall efficacy (89%), and adverse drug reactions (78%). The most common follow-up intervals during tapering were weekly (15%), every 2 weeks (22%), and every 4 weeks (44%). This practice-based survey, though small, showed that pharmacists in pain management and palliative care are actively involved in opioid tapering. This survey will hopefully serve as a foundation for continuing research into opioid tapering and the pharmacist's role therein.

Central nervous system polytherapy among veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: changes across a decade.

OBJECTIVE: The study objectives were to investigate rates and patterns of polytherapy among veterans with PTSD across time (in 2009 and 2019), describe features of polytherapy prescribing, and identify demographic and clinical factors associated with polytherapy. METHODS: Veterans Affairs (VA) administrative data were used to build cohorts of all VA-served veterans with PTSD in 2009 (N = 458,620) and 2019 (N = 877,785). Frequency of CNS active drug classes, rates of polytherapy (≥5 concurrent CNS drugs), clinical features associated with polytherapy, number of prescribers, and patterns of co-prescribed medications were examined. RESULTS: The 12-month period prevalence of CNS polytherapy declined from 12.1% in 2009 to 6.9% in 2019. However, polytherapy rates increased from 3.3% in 2009 to 4.1% in 2019, when opioids and benzodiazepines were excluded. In multivariable regression analysis, CNS polytherapy was more common among women, White people, middle-age veterans (45-64 years), rural residents, veterans receiving care at a medical center, and those with psychiatric comorbidities. CNS polytherapy regimens involved a mean of 2.3 prescribers and the majority (86.6%) included at least one medication commonly prescribed for pain management. CONCLUSIONS: CNS polytherapy declined among veterans with PTSD from 2009 to 2019 and was wholly attributable to decreases in opioid and benzodiazepine prescribing.

Item Response Theory Analysis: PROMIS® Anxiety Form and Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale.

Little research has compared item functioning of the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS®) anxiety short form 6a and the generalized anxiety disorder 7-item scale using item response theory models. This was a secondary analysis of self-reported assessments from 67 at-risk U.S. military veterans. The two measures performed comparably well with data fitting adequately to models, acceptable item discriminations, and item and test information curves being unimodal and symmetric. The PROMIS® anxiety short form 6a performed better in that item difficulty estimates had a wider range and distributed more evenly and all response categories had less floor effect, while the third category in most items of the generalized anxiety disorder 7-item scale were rarely used. While both measures may be appropriate, findings provided preliminary information supporting use of the PROMIS® anxiety short form 6a as potentially preferable, especially for veterans with low-to-moderate anxiety. Further testing is needed in larger, more diverse samples.

The Impact of Preoperative Distress: A Qualitative analysis of the Perioperative Pain Self-Management Intervention.

PURPOSE: Preoperatively distressed patients are at elevated risk for chronic postsurgical pain. Active psychological interventions show promise for mitigating chronic postsurgical pain. This study describes experiences of preoperatively distressed (elevated depressive symptom, anxious symptoms, or pain catastrophizing) and non-distressed participants who participated in the psychologically based Perioperative Pain Self-management (PePS) intervention. DESIGN: This is a qualitative study designed to capture participants' perspectives and feedback about their experiences during the PePS intervention. METHODS: Interviews were semi-structured, conducted by telephone, audio-recorded, transcribed, and audited for accuracy. Coded interviews were analyzed using a quote matrix to discern possible qualitative differences in what preoperatively distressed and non-distressed participants found most and least helpful about the intervention. RESULTS: Twenty-one participants completed interviews, 7 of whom were classified as distressed. Distressed participants identified learning how to reframe their pain as the most helpful part of the intervention. Non-distressed participants focused on the benefit of relaxation skill-building to manage post-surgical pain. Distressed and non-distressed participants both emphasized the importance of the social support aspects of PePS and- identified goal-setting as challenging. CONCLUSIONS: Distressed and non-distressed participants emphasized different preferences for pain management strategies offered by PePS. Most participants emphasized the importance of social support that PePS provided. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Our results indicate that post-operative patients may benefit from interpersonal interaction with a trained interventionist. Our findings also suggest that distressed and non-distressed patients may benefit from varied intervention approaches. How to build flexibility into a manualized intervention or whether these subsets of patients would benefit more from different interventions is a direction for future research.