Photosensory adaptation mechanisms in hypocotyl phototropism: how plants recognize the direction of a light source.

Plants recognize the direction of a light source and exhibit phototropic responses. Physiological studies have predicted that differences in the light intensity received by the cells on the irradiated and shaded sides of a coleoptile or hypocotyl cause differences in the amounts of photoproduct. This hypothetical photoproduct appears to regulate a signaling pathway that controls cell elongation in which cells under lower light intensity elongate more than those under higher light intensity. This results in a bending growth toward a light source and has been proposed as the photoproduct-gradient model of phototropism. In this review, we summarize recent findings on the photosensory adaptation mechanisms involving a blue-light photoreceptor, phototropin1 (phot1), ROOT PHOTOTROPISM2, NONPHOTOTROPIC HYPOCOTYL3 (NPH3), and another photoreceptor family, the phytochromes. The current evidence demonstrates that, in addition to the transition of the phot1-NPH3 photoreceptor complexes to their active state, the presence of a certain population of the phot1-NPH3 complexes showing a steady state, even in a light environment, is essential for recognition of the light source direction in phototropism. This is consistent with the photoproduct-gradient model, and a dissociation state of the phot1-NPH3 complex would be considered an entity of the hypothetical photoproduct in this model.

Neuromorphic System Using Memcapacitors and Autonomous Local Learning.

Artificial intelligence is used for various applications and is promising as an indispensable infrastructure in future societies. Neural networks are representative technologies that imitate human brains and exhibit various advantages. However, the size is bulky, the power is huge, and some advantages are not demonstrated because they are executed on Neumann-type computers. Neuromorphic systems are biomimetic systems from the hardware level to implement neuron and synapse elements, and the size is compact, the power is low, and the operation is robust. However, because the conventional ones are not composed of fully optimized hardware, the power is not yet minimal, and extra control circuits must be used. In this article, we developed a neuromorphic system using memcapacitors and autonomous local learning. By using memcapacitors, the power can be minimal, and by using autonomous local learning, the control circuits to handle the synapse elements can be deleted. First, the memcapacitors are completed in a cross-bar array, where the ferroelectric layers are sandwiched between the horizontal and perpendicular electrodes. The polarization and capacitance exhibit hysteresis due to the dielectric polarization. Next, autonomous local learning is introduced as follows. During the training phase, associative patterns to be memorized are directly sent, relatively high voltages are applied, and dielectric polarizations are induced. During the operation phase, relatively low voltages are applied, and input signals are weighted with the capacitances of the memcapacitors, summed, and transferred as the output signals. Finally, the experimental system is set up, and the experimental results are acquired. The memorized patterns during the training phase, distorted patterns as the input signals during the operation phase, and retrieved patterns as the output signals in the operation phase are shown. Researchers found that the retrieved patterns are completely the same as the memorized patterns. This means that the neuromorphic system works as an associative memory.

The phosphorylation status of NONPHOTOTROPIC HYPOCOTYL3 affects phot2-dependent phototropism in Arabidopsis.

The blue light photoreceptors, phototropin 1 (phot1) and phot2, and their signal transducer, NONPHOTOTROPIC HYPOCOTYL3 (NPH3), are activators of the phototropic responses of Arabidopsis hypocotyls. In a recent study, we reported that the control of NPH3 phosphorylation at serine 7 (S7: or S5), S213, S223, S237, S467, S474 (or S476), and S722 (or S723) contributes to the photosensory adaptation of phot1 signaling during the phototropic response. Phosphomimetic NPH3SE mutant and unphosphorylatable NPH3SA mutant on those serine residues function efficiently under blue light conditions at fluence rates of 10-5 µmol m-2 s-1 and 10-3 µmol m-2 s-1 or more, respectively. We here demonstrate that phosphomimetic NPH3SE, but not unphosphorylatable NPH3SA, promotes phot2-dependent phototropism under blue light condition at 100 µmol m-2 s-1. This result suggests that phot1 negatively controls phot2 signaling through the dephosphorylation of NPH3 at those residues and that the hyperactivation of phot1- and phot2-NPH3 complexes does not occur at the same time under high intensity blue light. We hypothesize that the dephosphorylation of NPH3 on those serine residues suppresses both phot1 and phot2 signaling, which results in different impacts on phot1- and phot2-dependent hypocotyl phototropism due to the differences in the photosensitivity and activation levels of phot1 and phot2.

Phosphorylation of NONPHOTOTROPIC HYPOCOTYL3 affects photosensory adaptation during the phototropic response.

Photosensory adaptation, which can be classified as sensor or effector adaptation, optimizes the light sensing of living organisms by tuning their sensitivity to changing light conditions. During the phototropic response in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), the light-dependent expression controls of blue-light (BL) photoreceptor phototropin 1 (phot1) and its modulator ROOT PHOTOTROPISM2 (RPT2) are known as the molecular mechanisms underlying sensor adaptation. However, little is known about effector adaption in plant phototropism. Here, we show that control of the phosphorylation status of NONPHOTOTROPIC HYPOCOTYL3 (NPH3) leads to effector adaptation in hypocotyl phototropism. We generated unphosphorable and phosphomimetic NPH3 proteins on seven phosphorylation sites in the etiolated seedlings of Arabidopsis. Unphosphorable NPH3 showed a shortening of its retention time in the cytosol and caused an inability to adapt to very low fluence rates of BL (∼10-5 µmol m-2 s-1) during the phototropic response. In contrast, the phosphomimetic NPH3 proteins had a lengthened retention time in the cytosol and could not enable the adaptation to BL at fluence rates of 10-3 µmol m-2 s-1 or more. Our results indicate that the activation level of phot1 and the corresponding phosphorylation level of NPH3 determine the dissociation rate and the reassociation rate of NPH3 on the plasma membrane, respectively. These mechanisms may moderately maintain the active state of phot1 signaling across a broad range of BL intensities and contribute to the photosensory adaptation of phot1 signaling during the phototropic response in hypocotyls.

Physiological Characterization of Phototropism in Arabidopsis Seedlings.

To date, many mutants have been isolated from dicot plants, including Arabidopsis thaliana, and the physiological roles of the isolated genes have been identified. Molecular genetic analyses have usually been conducted in the model plant Arabidopsis to identify blue-light photoreceptors and key signaling components in phototropic responses. Despite these investigations, several molecular mechanisms involved in phototropism remain unknown, possibly because detailed physiological analyses have not been conducted properly in the isolated mutants. This chapter describes an approach for the detailed investigation of hypocotyl and root phototropism in Arabidopsis seedlings. The information provided here is expected to facilitate the analysis of phototropic responses in other plant species.

Quantitative Measurements of Curvature Along the Growth Axis in Tropic Responses Using Free Software Environments.

Tropic responses in plants have usually been studied by measuring changes in the deflection angle of the organ tip. However, the measurement of other geometric parameters, such as curvature along the entire length, may give us better understanding of tropic responses, particularly in shoots. Here, we describe methods for obtaining quantitative measurements of local curvature and other parameters based on digital images of bending Arabidopsis hypocotyls using the free software packages, ImageJ and R.

Involvement of PP6-type protein phosphatase in hypocotyl phototropism in Arabidopsis seedlings.

Recently, we reported that the D6 protein kinase subfamily, which belongs to the AGCVIII kinase family, is a critical component of hypocotyl phototropism in Arabidopsis seedlings. Furthermore, we demonstrated that AGC1-12, which is also a member of the AGCVIII kinase family, is involved in both the pulse-induced first positive phototropism and gravitropism in Arabidopsis hypocotyls. Those results indicated that phosphorylation control is an important mechanism in phototropic signaling. As phosphorylation regulation is controlled by both kinases and phosphatases, we investigated the roles of phosphatases in hypocotyl phototropism. Our physiological analysis, which was performed using Arabidopsis mutants, indicated that the flower-specific, phytochrome-associated protein phosphatase family, which functions as a catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 6 (PP6), is involved in both the pulse-induced first positive phototropism and the time-dependent second positive phototropism, although it is not necessary for the continuous-light-induced second positive phototropism. These results suggest that not only kinases, but also phosphatases play critical roles in hypocotyl phototropism to control phosphorylation status and that PP6-type protein phosphatases may act antagonistically with AGCVIII protein kinases on the same targets, such as PIN-formed proteins.

Roles of AGCVIII Kinases in the Hypocotyl Phototropism of Arabidopsis Seedlings.

Regulation of protein function by phosphorylation and dephosphorylation is an important mechanism in many cellular events. The phototropin blue-light photoreceptors, plant-specific AGCVIII kinases, are essential for phototropic responses. Members of the D6 PROTEIN KINASE (D6PK) family, representing a subfamily of the AGCVIII kinases, also contribute to phototropic responses, suggesting that possibly further AGCVIII kinases may potentially control phototropism. The present study investigates the functional roles of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) AGCVIII kinases in hypocotyl phototropism. We demonstrate that D6PK family kinases are not only required for the second but also for the first positive phototropism. In addition, we find that a previously uncharacterized AGCVIII protein, AGC1-12, is involved in the first positive phototropism and gravitropism. AGC1-12 phosphorylates serine residues in the cytoplasmic loop of PIN-FORMED 1 (PIN1) and shares phosphosite preferences with D6PK. Our work strongly suggests that the D6PK family and AGC1-12 are critical components for both hypocotyl phototropism and gravitropism, and that these kinases control tropic responses mainly through regulation of PIN-mediated auxin transport by protein phosphorylation.

Asymmetric Auxin Distribution is Not Required to Establish Root Phototropism in Arabidopsis.

An asymmetric auxin distribution pattern is assumed to underlie the tropic responses of seed plants. It is unclear, however, whether this pattern is required for root negative phototropism. We here demonstrate that asymmetric auxin distribution is not required to establish root phototropism in Arabidopsis. Our detailed analyses of auxin reporter genes indicate that auxin accumulates on the irradiated side of roots in response to an incidental gravitropic stimulus caused by phototropic bending. Further, an agravitropic mutant showed a suppression of this accumulation with an enhancement of the phototropic response. In this context, our pharmacological and genetic analyses revealed that both polar auxin transport and auxin biosynthesis are critical for the establishment of root gravitropism, but not for root phototropism, and that defects in these processes actually enhance phototropic responses in roots. The auxin response factor double mutant arf7 arf19 and the auxin receptor mutant tir1 showed a slight reduction in phototropic curvatures in roots, suggesting that the transcriptional regulation by some specific ARF proteins and their regulators is at least partly involved in root phototropism. However, the auxin antagonist PEO-IAA [α-(phenylethyl-2-one)-indole-3-acetic acid] suppressed root gravitropism and enhanced root phototropism, suggesting that the TIR1/AFB auxin receptors and ARF transcriptional factors play minor roles in root phototropism. Taken together, we conclude from our current data that the phototropic response in Arabidopsis roots is induced by an unknown mechanism that does not require asymmetric auxin distribution and that the Cholodny-Went hypothesis probably does not apply to root phototropism.

PINOID functions in root phototropism as a negative regulator.

The PINOID (PID) family, which belongs to AGCVIII kinases, is known to be involved in the regulation of auxin efflux transporter PIN-formed (PIN) proteins through changes in the phosphorylation status. Recently, we demonstrated that the PID family is necessary for phytochrome-mediated phototropic enhancement in Arabidopsis hypocotyls and that the downregulation of PID expression by red-light pretreatment results in the promotion of the PIN-mediated auxin gradient during phototropic responses. However, whether PID participates in root phototropism in Arabidopsis seedlings has not been well studied. Here, we demonstrated that negative root phototropic responses are enhanced in the pid quadruple mutant and are severely impaired in transgenic plants expressing PID constitutively. The results indicate that the PID family functions in a negative root phototropism as a negative regulator. On the other hand, analysis with PID fused to a yellow fluorescent protein, VENUS, showed that unilateral blue-light irradiation causes a lower accumulation of PID proteins on the shaded side than on the irradiated side. This result suggests that the blue-light-mediated asymmetrical distribution of PID proteins may be one of the critical responses in phototropin-mediated signals during a negative root phototropism. Alternatively, such a transverse gradient of PID proteins may result from gravitropic stimulation produced by phototropic bending.

Full establishment of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in rice occurs independently of enzymatic jasmonate biosynthesis.

Development of the mutualistic arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) symbiosis between most land plants and fungi of the Glomeromycota is regulated by phytohormones. The role of jasmonate (JA) in AM colonization has been investigated in the dicotyledons Medicago truncatula, tomato and Nicotiana attenuata and contradicting results have been obtained with respect to a neutral, promotive or inhibitory effect of JA on AM colonization. Furthermore, it is currently unknown whether JA plays a role in AM colonization of monocotyledonous roots. Therefore we examined whether JA biosynthesis is required for AM colonization of the monocot rice. To this end we employed the rice mutant constitutive photomorphogenesis 2 (cpm2), which is deficient in JA biosynthesis. Through a time course experiment the amount and morphology of fungal colonization did not differ between wild-type and cpm2 roots. Furthermore, no significant difference in the expression of AM marker genes was detected between wild type and cpm2. However, treatment of wild-type roots with 50 µM JA lead to a decrease of AM colonization and this was correlated with induction of the defense gene PR4. These results indicate that JA is not required for AM colonization of rice but high levels of JA in the roots suppress AM development likely through the induction of defense.

Arabidopsis ROOT PHOTOTROPISM2 Contributes to the Adaptation to High-Intensity Light in Phototropic Responses.

Living organisms adapt to changing light environments via mechanisms that enhance photosensitivity under darkness and attenuate photosensitivity under bright light conditions. In hypocotyl phototropism, phototropin1 (phot1) blue light photoreceptors mediate both the pulse light-induced, first positive phototropism and the continuous light-induced, second positive phototropism, suggesting the existence of a mechanism that alters their photosensitivity. Here, we show that light induction of ROOT PHOTOTROPISM2 (RPT2) underlies photosensory adaptation in hypocotyl phototropism of Arabidopsis thaliana. rpt2 loss-of-function mutants exhibited increased photosensitivity to very low fluence blue light but were insensitive to low fluence blue light. Expression of RPT2 prior to phototropic stimulation in etiolated seedlings reduced photosensitivity during first positive phototropism and accelerated second positive phototropism. Our microscopy and biochemical analyses indicated that blue light irradiation causes dephosphorylation of NONPHOTOTROPIC HYPOCOTYL3 (NPH3) proteins and mediates their release from the plasma membrane. These phenomena correlate closely with the desensitization of phot1 signaling during the transition period from first positive phototropism to second positive phototropism. RPT2 modulated the phosphorylation of NPH3 and promoted reconstruction of the phot1-NPH3 complex on the plasma membrane. We conclude that photosensitivity is increased in the absence of RPT2 and that this results in the desensitization of phot1. Light-mediated induction of RPT2 then reduces the photosensitivity of phot1, which is required for second positive phototropism under bright light conditions.

PINOID AGC kinases are necessary for phytochrome-mediated enhancement of hypocotyl phototropism in Arabidopsis.

Several members of the AGCVIII kinase subfamily, which includes PINOID (PID), PID2, and WAVY ROOT GROWTH (WAG) proteins, have previously been shown to phosphorylate PIN-FORMED (PIN) auxin transporters and control the auxin flow in plants. PID has been proposed as a key component of the phototropin signaling pathway that induces phototropic responses, although the responses were not significantly impaired in the pid single and pid wag1 wag2 triple mutants. This raises questions about the functional roles of the PID family in phototropic responses. Here, we investigated hypocotyl phototropism in the pid pid2 wag1 wag2 quadruple mutant in detail to clarify the roles of the PID family in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). The pid quadruple mutants exhibited moderate responses in continuous light-induced phototropism with a decrease in growth rates of hypocotyls and normal responses in pulse-induced phototropism. However, they showed serious defects in enhancements of pulse-induced phototropic curvatures and lateral fluorescent auxin transport by red light pretreatment. Red light pretreatment significantly reduced the expression level of PID, and the constitutive expression of PID prevented pulse-induced phototropism, irrespective of red light pretreatment. This suggests that the PID family plays a significant role in phytochrome-mediated phototropic enhancement but not the phototropin signaling pathway. Red light treatment enhanced the intracellular accumulation of PIN proteins in response to the vesicle-trafficking inhibitor brefeldin A in addition to increasing their expression levels. Taken together, these results suggest that red light preirradiation enhances phototropic curvatures by up-regulation of PIN proteins, which are not being phosphorylated by the PID family.

The phototropic response is locally regulated within the topmost light-responsive region of the Arabidopsis thaliana seedling.

Phototropism is caused by differential cell elongation between the irradiated and shaded sides of plant organs, such as the stem. It is widely accepted that an uneven auxin distribution between the two sides crucially participates in this response. Plant-specific blue-light photoreceptors, phototropins (phot1 and phot2), mediate this response. In grass coleoptiles, the sites of light perception and phototropic bending are spatially separated. However, these sites are less clearly distinguished in dicots. Furthermore, the exact placement of the action of each phototropic signaling factor remains unknown. Here, we investigated the spatial aspects of phototropism using spotlight irradiation with etiolated Arabidopsis seedlings. The results demonstrated that the topmost part of about 1.1 mm of the hypocotyl constituted the light-responsive region in which both light perception and actual bending occurred. In addition, cotyledons and the shoot apex were dispensable for the response. Hence, the response was more region autonomous in dicots than in monocots. We next examined the elongation rates, the levels of phot1 and the auxin-reporter gene expression along the hypocotyl during the phototropic response. The light-responsive region was more active than the non-responsive region with respect to all of those parameters.

Identification of rice Allene Oxide Cyclase mutants and the function of jasmonate for defence against Magnaporthe oryzae.

Two photomorphogenic mutants of rice, coleoptile photomorphogenesis 2 (cpm2) and hebiba, were found to be defective in the gene encoding allene oxide cyclase (OsAOC) by map-based cloning and complementation assays. Examination of the enzymatic activity of recombinant GST-OsAOC indicated that OsAOC is a functional enzyme that is involved in the biosynthesis of jasmonic acid and related compounds. The level of jasmonate was extremely low in both mutants, in agreement with the fact that rice has only one gene encoding allene oxide cyclase. Several flower-related mutant phenotypes were observed, including morphological abnormalities of the flower and early flowering. We used these mutants to investigate the function of jasmonate in the defence response to the blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. Inoculation assays with fungal spores revealed that both mutants are more susceptible than wild-type to an incompatible strain of M. oryzae, in such a way that hyphal growth was enhanced in mutant tissues. The level of jasmonate isoleucine, a bioactive form of jasmonate, increased in response to blast infection. Furthermore, blast-induced accumulation of phytoalexins, especially that of the flavonoid sakuranetin, was found to be severely impaired in cpm2 and hebiba. Together, the present study demonstrates that, in rice, jasmonate mediates the defence response against blast fungus.

Differential roles of auxin efflux carrier PIN proteins in hypocotyl phototropism of etiolated Arabidopsis seedlings depend on the direction of light stimulus.

In a recent study, we demonstrated that although the auxin efflux carrier PIN-FORMED (PIN) proteins, such as PIN3 and PIN7, are required for the pulse-induced first positive phototropism in etiolated Arabidopsis hypocotyls, they are not necessary for the continuous-light-induced second positive phototropism when the seedlings are grown on the surface of agar medium, which causes the hypocotyls to separate from the agar surface. Previous reports have shown that hypocotyl phototropism is slightly impaired in pin3 single mutants when they are grown along the surface of agar medium, where the hypocotyls always contact the agar, producing some friction. To clarify the possible involvement of PIN3 and PIN7 in continuous-light-induced phototropism, we investigated hypocotyl phototropism in the pin3 pin7 double mutant grown along the surface of agar medium. Intriguingly, the phototropic curvature was slightly impaired in the double mutant when the phototropic stimulus was presented on the adaxial side of the hook, but was not impaired when the phototropic stimulus was presented on the abaxial side of the hook. These results indicate that PIN proteins are required for continuous-light-induced second positive phototropism, depending on the direction of the light stimulus, when the seedlings are in contact with agar medium.

Molecular genetic analysis of phototropism in Arabidopsis.

Plant life is strongly dependent on the environment, and plants regulate their growth and development in response to many different environmental stimuli. One of the regulatory mechanisms involved in these responses is phototropism, which allows plants to change their growth direction in response to the location of the light source. Since the study of phototropism by Darwin, many physiological studies of this phenomenon have been published. Recently, molecular genetic analyses of Arabidopsis have begun to shed light on the molecular mechanisms underlying this response system, including phototropin blue light photoreceptors, phototropin signaling components, auxin transporters, auxin action mechanisms and others. This review highlights some of the recent progress that has been made in further elucidating the phototropic response, with particular emphasis on mutant phenotypes.

PIN auxin efflux carriers are necessary for pulse-induced but not continuous light-induced phototropism in Arabidopsis.

Auxin efflux carrier PIN-FORMED (PIN) proteins are thought to have central roles in regulating asymmetrical auxin translocation during tropic responses, including gravitropism and phototropism, in plants. Although PIN3 is known to be involved in phototropism in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), no severe defects of phototropism in any of the pin mutants have been reported. We show here that the pulse-induced, first positive phototropism is impaired partially in pin1, pin3, and pin7 single mutants, and severely in triple mutants. In contrast, such impairment was not observed in continuous-light-induced second positive phototropism. Analysis with an auxin-reporter gene demonstrated that PIN3-mediated auxin gradients participate in pulse-induced phototropism but not in continuous-light-induced phototropism. Similar functional separation was also applicable to PINOID, a regulator of PIN localization. Our results strongly suggest the existence of functionally distinct mechanisms i.e. a PIN-dependent mechanism in which transient stimulation is sufficient to induce phototropism, and a PIN-independent mechanism that requires continuous stimulation and does not operate in the former phototropism process. Although a previous study has proposed that blue-light photoreceptors, the phototropins, control PIN localization through the transcriptional down-regulation of PINOID, we could not detect this blue-light-dependent down-regulation event, suggesting that other as yet unknown mechanisms are involved in phototropin-mediated phototropic responses.

The wavy growth 3 E3 ligase family controls the gravitropic response in Arabidopsis roots.

Regulation of the root growth pattern is an important control mechanism during plant growth and propagation. To better understand alterations in root growth direction in response to environmental stimuli, we have characterized an Arabidopsis thaliana mutant, wavy growth 3 (wav3), whose roots show a short-pitch pattern of wavy growth on inclined agar medium. The wav3 mutant shows a greater curvature of root bending in response to gravity, but a smaller curvature in response to light, suggesting that it is a root gravitropism-enhancing mutation. This wav3 phenotype also suggests that enhancement of the gravitropic response in roots strengthens root tip impedance after contact with the agar surface and/or causes an increase in subsequent root bending in response to obstacle-touching stimulus in these mutants. WAV3 encodes a protein with a RING finger domain, and is mainly expressed in root tips. RING-containing proteins often function as an E3 ubiquitin ligase, and the WAV3 protein shows such activity in vitro. There are three genes homologous to WAV3 in the Arabidopsis genome [EMBRYO SAC DEVELOPMENT ARREST 40 (EDA40), WAVH1 and WAVH2 ], and wav3 wavh1 wavh2 triple mutants show marked root gravitropism abnormalities. This genetic study indicates that WAV3 functions positively rather than negatively in root gravitropism, and that enhancement of the gravitropic response in wav3 roots is dependent upon the function of WAVH2 in the absence of WAV3. Hence, our results demonstrate that the WAV3 family of proteins are E3 ligases that are required for root gravitropism in Arabidopsis.

Asymmetric distribution of auxin correlates with gravitropism and phototropism but not with autostraightening (autotropism) in pea epicotyls.

The relationships between the distribution of the native auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and tropisms in the epicotyl of red light-grown pea (Pisum sativum L.) seedlings have been investigated. The distribution measurement was made in a defined zone of the third internode, using (3)H-IAA applied from the plumule as a tracer. The tropisms investigated were gravitropism, pulse-induced phototropism, and time-dependent phototropism. The investigation was extended to the phase of autostraightening (autotropism) that followed gravitropic curvature. It was found that IAA is asymmetrically distributed between the two halves of the zone, with a greater IAA level occurring on the convex side, at early stages of gravitropic and phototropic curvatures. This asymmetry was found in epidermal peels and, except for one case (pulse-induced phototropism), no asymmetry was detected in whole tissues. It was concluded, in support of earlier results, that auxin asymmetry mediates gravitropism and phototropism and that the epidermis or peripheral cell layers play an important role in the establishment of auxin asymmetry in pea epicotyls. During autostraightening, which results from a reversal of growth asymmetry, the extent of IAA asymmetry was reduced, but its direction was not reversed. This result demonstrated that autostraightening is not regulated through auxin distribution. In this study, the growth on either side of the investigated zone was also measured. In some cases, the measured IAA distribution could not adequately explain the local growth rate, necessitating further detailed investigation.